Keywords

1 Introduction

As the world becomes increasingly digitalized, people need to have the ability to navigate, comprehend, and utilize technology effectively in various aspects of their lives [1]. While it provides numerous advantages, online environments and communities [2] are also filled with clever and adaptable structures to maximize commercial interests, capture and retain users’ attention, monetize user data, and forecast and influence future behaviours [3].

The rampant process of globalization and the consequent worldwide digitalization is giving rise to a new concept of citizenship, cybercitizenship, to which a new set of challenges and responsibilities is added. In Greek antiquity, Aristotle (384 BC–322 BC) stated that man is zoon politikon, that is, he is by nature a social animal. Since this historical period, man has been conceptualized from the point of view of his civic dimension, seen in its political and ontological dimension as a constitutive element of the human being. The Greek citizen was the one who had an active participation in the life of the polis, mediated by an interaction between all, in search of the common good.

This Greek conception of citizenship is essential to understand the meaning of citizenship in the contemporaneity, the global and digital citizenship of the twenty-first century. In modern times, the concept of citizenship was held hostage by a set of civic rules, rights, and duties that man had to know and fulfill in order to establish peace. In contemporary times, the Greek sense of participation [4] has been taken up, albeit in a different form, which includes, in addition to the ontological dimension, the ethical dimension of citizenship, seen in the dialectical interaction “Self”/“Other”, under the aegis of autonomy, justice, and responsibility [4]. As Pangrazio [5, p.17] states, “citizenship is as much a question of ontology—of being—as it is a question of belief, understandings or action”. The democratic citizen of the twentieth century is the one who exercises his freedom concerning the other, who is also free, assuming his responsibility to act in favor of a more just community.

In the twenty-first century, in the global and digital world context, this community is not confined to borders. It takes on a global configuration founded on a cyber citizenship, understood as “a sense of belonging to the global community and common humanity, with its presumed members experiencing solidarity and collective identity among themselves and collective responsibility at the global level.“ [6, p.3].

This common humanity develops in a plural cultural and axiological matrix that requires an educational process for knowledge and dialogue with the different in the establishment of a social pact embodied in acceptance and cooperation. This is how the educational philosophy and aims published in the UNESCO Report Reimagining our future together: A new social contract for education [7] are understood.

It proposes an education for cybercitizenship based on a global democratic culture [8], which promotes the development of social and ethical rationality in line with global peace, knowing that this implies the well-being of each person in their singularity and of all as a community. It postulates a global citizen education based on the development of digital literacy skills [9], including media and information literacy, empathy, and ethics. This paper aims to unveil seminal works and understand the evolution of ideas underlying these concepts, considering that the context where it happens nowadays—digital context- has fewer boundaries, is ubiquitous, and provides anonymity to users, which may shape behaviors.

2 Methodological Considerations

Considering the exploratory nature of the work, a citation-based literature review was conducted based on data gathered using Dimension artificial intelligence tool, providing support to a grounded theory approach. This approach involves analyzing and synthesizing the most frequently cited works in the field of study to gain insights into the key concepts, trends, and influential authors within the area. It can help to identify seminal works and understand the evolution of ideas within the trilogy of analysis: digital literacy, education, and citizenship.

3 Digital Literacy, Education and Citizenship: A Dialectic Net of Interaction

The proliferation of digital interactions between users not only brings opportunities, as it poses risks in terms of misinformation, fake news, and cyberbullying [10]. The use of technology, both intentionally and unintentionally, enables the spread of non-verify information at scale, which can have broad-reaching societal effects, especially because not all individuals can identify misinformation online [11]. In a certain way, misinformation compromises the ability of societies to form informed opinions and affects decision-making processes in various domains [12]. For instance, Adjin-Tettey [13] noted that accessibility of expert knowledge on the internet can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations by non-experts, potentially resulting in negative consequences.

Ciampaglia [14] examines how digital misinformation flourishes due to cognitive, social, and algorithmic biases, posing a significant risk to society. This analysis underscores the importance of creating a research pipeline dedicated to detecting, monitoring, and verifying instances of digital misinformation. In this sense it is essential for individuals to be digitally literate in order to participate fully in today’s digital society and take advantage of the opportunities and resources available.

Digital literacy is a tool that enables users to use properly information and tools available online [15]. To Tamborg et al. [16] digital literacy can be defined as the combination of skills, knowledge, and reflective practical abilities required to achieve digital literacy. Additionally, it is viewed as an emerging empirical phenomenon that warrants explorative study.

Digital literacy refers to the ability to use digital tools and technologies to access, evaluate, create, and communicate information effectively. It encompasses skills such as reading, writing, listening, speaking, composing, and interacting within digital environments. Digital literacy includes both the technical ability and emotional skill level needed to generate thought and communicate in multiple formats within digital environments. It also involves the consumption and generation of text and the practices used to create and consume them, both inside and outside of school. Thus, digital literacy is an evolving field that requires cognitive and technical skills to navigate and utilize information and communication technologies.

According Rusdy and Fauzi [17], the lack of proper understanding in digital literacy can indeed have negative effects on children and young’ adults’ psyche. When they are not adequately educated about responsible online behavior and ethical guidelines, they may be prone to developing harmful attitudes and behaviors.

Poor digital literacy has several consequences (see, Fig. 1). It hinders students’ ability to effectively engage in digital learning environments, leading to lower performance [18]. It also perpetuates inequalities in access, skills, and outcomes, particularly among disadvantaged youth [19], creating a gap between secondary and tertiary education, as students who lack digital literacy skills struggle to bridge the technological divide [20].

Fig. 1
An illustration presents the consequences of poor digital literacy. Tt perpetuates disparities, fosters disdain towards others, facilitates the propagation of misinformation and falsehoods, limits inclusion in societal engagement, and diminishes overall performance.

Consequences of poor digital literacy [21]

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Poor digital literacy also results in exclusion from participation in society, as individuals with low digital literacy can only partially engage in various areas of life, such as work, finance, and informed decision-making [21] (See, Fig. 1).

Furthermore, the absence of digital literacy can make children/young’s adults susceptible to being attracted to forwarding harmful content. They might share or disseminate inappropriate, hurtful, or false information, not fully comprehending the consequences of their actions. This behaviour contributes to the spread of hoaxes and fake news, as individuals with low digital literacy are more susceptible to misinformation [22] and can perpetuate misinformation, spread rumours, or cause harm to individuals and communities [23].

Another consequence of poor digital literacy is a tendency to despise others. Without the knowledge and skills to navigate the digital world respectfully, children/young’s adults may engage in cyberbullying or discriminatory behavior, spreading hate and negativity towards others. This can have serious psychological effects on both the victims and the perpetrators [24]. Underlying cyberbullying is the moral disengagement associated with a low level of empathy [24,25,26].

The link between digital literacy and cyberbullying is well-known and established in the literature as found in the search conducted using the Dimension tool and observed in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
A line graph plots the publications between 2014 and 2023. The total number reaches 145 in 2018 which is the highest. In other years, the publications are below 25. Approximated values.

Evolution of publications retrieved from dimension tool

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Some authors suggest that digital literacy education can play a crucial role in preventing cyberbullying by enabling individuals to use the internet wisely and correctly [27]. Digital literacy programs, such as workshops and sharing sessions, can help raise awareness about cyberbullying and teach individuals how to combat it effectively [28]. This includes teaching students to think critically about online content, understand the context in which information is presented, and communicate responsibly. Education providers can mitigate the risks associated with poor critical thinking and cyberbullying by providing students with the necessary skills to navigate digital platforms and online environments.

Additionally, analyzing the sentiment of social media messages using machine learning algorithms can help identify abusive messages and take appropriate action [29]. Developing digital literacy skills can empower individuals to critically evaluate internet and social media information, enabling them to identify and counter cyberbullying behavior [27]. By promoting digital literacy and violent literacy, society can address the negative consequences of violent language and the sharing of violent content on social media platforms.

In this context, it is urgent to emphasize cybercitizenship education in schools, focused on the four categories listed by Choi [9]: ethics, media and information literacy, participation and commitment, and critical resistance. To promote the development of a digital awareness based on digital literacy, which favors not only the knowledge of how to access the digital world and which develops technical skills but also levels of ethical-moral development and superior psychological capacities. The latter is understood as self-control and empathy skills in the face of situations and new emotions. But it also means recognizing the dignity of the other, as autonomous and equal, and understanding the importance of establishing global social justice.

4 Final Considerations

To mitigate the negative effects of less expert and social-fit behaviour, it is crucial to prioritize digital literacy education for children and young’s adults. By teaching them about responsible online behaviour, empathy, and critical thinking, we can help them develop positive attitudes toward others and use digital platforms responsibly. Acknowledging the importance of integrating critical digital literacy education into the curriculum to empower students with the necessary skills for navigating the online environment and discerning ‘fake news’.

Proper digital literacy education can empower children and young adults to become responsible digital citizens and contribute to a safer and more respectful online environment for everyone. Moreover, digital literacy education can enhance digital connection and inclusion, particularly for those lacking skills [4]. By improving digital literacy, individuals can better discern between reliable and unreliable information, reducing the spread of hoaxes and fake news. Furthermore, digital literacy education can strengthen citizens’ resilience to misinformation and ‘fake news’ by promoting critical dialogue and teaching about specific subgenres such as YouTube and TikTok.

Thus, it’s crucial offering continuous training and support for educators to enhance their own digital literacy skills and remain abreast of the latest trends and challenges in the online realm. And enhance the educational network, promoting collaboration among librarians, faculty, and other stakeholders to create and execute information literacy initiatives that cater to the specific requirements of students.

Formulating impactful approaches for digital literacy education that surpass mere technical competencies and emphasize critical thinking is essential to foster real digital citizenship. But requires continuous assessment and information analysis since the digital realities and environments face continuous changes.