Abstract
Manufacturing integrated circuits is a complex and intricate process, both for semiconductor and superconductive electronics. Despite the minimum feature size and number of layers in modern SCE technology being less deeply scaled as compared to semiconductor technologies, numerous challenges exist in manufacturing superconductive electronics. The materials used during the different fabrication steps interact in complex mechanical, chemical, and electrical ways, requiring adjustments to the manufacturing process. These issues are exacerbated by the high sensitivity of superconductive circuits to process variations. In this chapter, the different steps and materials used in the manufacturing process of superconductive circuits are described. Challenges unique to superconductive electronics are highlighted. Important features of modern superconductive fabrication technologies are discussed and compared to the fabrication of semiconductor-based integrated circuits.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
T. Jabbari, F. Shanehsazzadeh, H. Zandi, M. Banzet, J. Schubert, M. Fardmanesh, Effects of the design parameters on characteristics of the inductances and JJs in HTS RSFQ circuits. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 28(7), 1–4 (2018)
K.K. Likharev, V.K. Semenov, RSFQ logic/memory family: a new Josephson-junction technology for sub-terahertz-clock-frequency digital systems. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 1(1), 3–28 (1991)
S. Whiteley, E. Mlinar, G. Krylov, T. Jabbari, E.G. Friedman, J. Kawa, An SFQ digital circuit technology with fully-passive transmission line interconnect, in Proceedings of the Applied Superconductivity Conference (2020)
T. Jabbari, E.G. Friedman, Global interconnects in VLSI complexity single flux quantum systems, in Proceedings of the Workshop on System-Level Interconnect: Problems and Pathfinding Workshop (2020), pp. 1–7
T. Jabbari, G. Krylov, S. Whiteley, J. Kawa, E.G. Friedman, Repeater insertion in SFQ interconnect. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 30(8), 5400508 (2020)
T. Jabbari, M. Bocko, E.G. Friedman, All-JJ logic based on bistable JJs. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 33(5), 1–7 (2023)
T. Jabbari, E.G. Friedman, Transmission lines in VLSI complexity single flux quantum systems, in Proceedings of the PhotonIcs and Electromagnetics Research Symposium (2023), pp. 1749–1759
T. Jabbari, J. Kawa, E.G. Friedman, H-tree clock synthesis in RSFQ circuits, in Proceedings of the IEEE Baltic Electronics Conference (2020), pp. 1–5
T. Jabbari, G. Krylov, J Kawa, E.G. Friedman, Splitter trees in single flux quantum circuits. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 31(5), 1302606 (2021)
T. Jabbari, E.G. Friedman, Flux mitigation in wide superconductive striplines. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 32(3), 1–6 (2022)
T. Jabbari, E.G. Friedman, Stripline topology for flux mitigation. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 335, 1–4 (2023)
T. Jabbari, G. Krylov, S. Whiteley, J. Kawa, E.G. Friedman, Resonance effects in single flux quantum interconnect, in Proceedings of the Government Microcircuit Applications and Critical Technology Conference (2020), pp. 1–5
T. Jabbari, E.G. Friedman, Surface inductance of superconductive striplines. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II Express Briefs 69(6), 2952–2956 (2022)
S.K. Tolpygo, Superconductor digital electronics: scalability and energy efficiency issues. Low Temp. Phys. 42(5), 361–379 (2016)
C.M. Natarajan, M.G. Tanner, R.H. Hadfield, Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors: physics and applications. Supercond. Sci. Technol. 25(6), 063001 (2012)
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Sense amplifier for spin-based cryogenic memory cells. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 29(5), 1–4 (2019). Art no. 1501804
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Behavioral verilog-A model of superconductor-ferromagnetic transistor, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (2018)
S.K Tolpygo, V. Bolkhovsky, R. Rastogi, S. Zarr, A.L. Day, E. Golden, T.J. Weir, A. Wynn, L.M. Johnson, Advanced fabrication processes for superconductor electronics: current status and new developments. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 29(5), 1–13 (2019)
T. Ando, S. Nagasawa, N. Takeuchi, N. Tsuji, F. China, M. Hidaka, Y. Yamanashi, N. Yoshikawa, Three-dimensional adiabatic quantum-flux-parametron fabricated using a double-active-layered niobium process. Supercond. Sci. Technol. 30(7), 075003 (2017)
D.T. Yohannes, R.T. Hunt, J.A. Vivalda, D. Amparo, A. Cohen, I.V. Vernik, A.F. Kirichenko, Planarized, extendible, multilayer fabrication process for superconducting electronics. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 25(3), 1–5 (2015)
D. Yohannes, S. Sarwana, S.K. Tolpygo, A. Sahu, Y.A. Polyakov, V.K. Semenov, Characterization of HYPRES’ 4.5 \(kA/cm^2\) & 8 \(kA/cm^2\)\(Nb/AlO_x/Nb\) fabrication processes. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 15(2), 90–93 (2005)
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Partitioning RSFQ circuits for current recycling. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 31(5), 1–6 (2021)
S.K. Tolpygo, V. Bolkhovsky, T.J. Weir, A. Wynn, D.E. Oates, L.M. Johnson, M.A. Gouker, Advanced fabrication processes for superconducting very large-scale integrated circuits. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 26(3), 1–10 (2016)
F. Bedard, N. Welker, G.R. Gotter, M.A. Escavage, J.T. Pinkston, Superconducting Technology Assessment (National Security Agency, Office of Corporate Assessments, Fort Meade, Maryland, 2005)
J.M. Murduck, Fabrication of Superconducting Devices and Circuits. Frontiers of Thin Film Technology (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2001)
Y. Tarutani, M. Hirano, U. Kawabe, Niobium-based integrated circuit technologies. Proc. IEEE 77(8), 1164–1176 (1989)
E.L. Wolf, Introduction to refractory Josephson junctions, in Josephson Junctions: History, Devices, and Applications, ed. by E.L. Wolf, G.B. Arnold, M.A. Gurvitch, J.F. Zasadzinski, Chapter 2 (Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd., Singapore, 2017), pp. 17–46
M.A. Gurvitch, The trace that launched a thousand chips: development of Nb/Al–Oxide–Nb technology, in Josephson Junctions: History, Devices, and Applications, ed. by E.L. Wolf, G.B. Arnold, M.A. Gurvitch, J. F. Zasadzinski, Chapter 5 (Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd., Singapore, 2017), pp. 83–146
A.L. Robinson, New superconductors for a supercomputer. Science 215(4528), 40–43 (1982)
I. Ames, An overview of materials and process aspects of Josephson integrated circuit fabrication. IBM J. Res. Develop. 24(2), 188–194 (1980)
I. Giaever, Energy gap in superconductors measured by electron tunneling. Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 147–148 (1960)
I.P. Litikov, O.A. Mukhanov, Loop self-testing of Josephson junction digital structures, in Avtomatika i Vychislitelnaya Tekhnika [Soviet Automatics and Computers], No. 1 (1988), pp. 70–78
D. Shen, R. Zhu, W. Xu, J. Chang, Z. Ji, G. Sun, C. Cao, J. Chen, Character and fabrication of Al/\(Al_2 O_3\)/Al tunnel junctions for qubit application. Chin. Sci. Bull. 57(4), 409–412 (2012)
D.R.W. Yost, M.E. Schwartz, J. Mallek, D. Rosenberg, C. Stull, J.L. Yoder, G. Calusine, M. Cook, R. Das, A.L. Day, E.B. Golden, D.K. Kim, A. Melville, B.M. Niedzielski, W. Woods, A.J. Kerman, W.D. Oliver, Solid-state qubits integrated with superconducting through-silicon vias. NPJ Quant. Inf. 6(1), 1–7 (2020)
M. Gurvitch, M.A. Washington, H.A. Huggins, High quality refractory Josephson tunnel junctions utilizing thin aluminum layers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 42(5), 472–474 (1983)
Y. Uzawa, S. Saito, W. Qiu, K. Makise, T. Kojima, Z. Wang, Optical and tunneling studies of energy gap in superconducting niobium nitride films. J. Low Temp. Phys. 199, 143–148 (2020)
M.M.T.M. Dierichs, B.J. Feenstra, A. Skalare, C.E. Honingh, J. Mees, H.v.d. Stadt, Th. de Graauw, Evaluation of niobium transmission lines up to the superconducting gap frequency. Appl. Phys. Lett. 63(2), 249–251 (1993)
K. Steinberg, M. Scheffler, M. Dressel, Quasiparticle response of superconducting aluminum to electromagnetic radiation. Phys. Rev. B 77, 214517 (2008)
J.C. Villegier, Refractory niobium nitride NbN Josephson junctions and applications, in Josephson Junctions: History, Devices, and Applications, Chapter 6, ed. by E.L. Wolf, G.B. Arnold, M.A. Gurvitch, J.F. Zasadzinski (Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd., Singapore, 2017), pp. 147–183
M. Radparvar, Superconducting niobium and niobium nitride processes for medium-scale integration applications. Cryogenics 35, 535–540 (1995)
S.K. Tolpygo, Scalability of superconductor electronics: limitations imposed by AC clock and flux bias transformers. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 33(2), 1–19 (2023)
L.A. Abelson, G.L. Kerber, Superconductor integrated circuit fabrication technology. Proc. IEEE 92(10), 1517–1533 (2004)
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Design methodology for distributed large-scale ERSFQ bias networks. IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst. 28(11), 2438–2447 (2020)
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Asynchronous dynamic single flux quantum majority gates. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 30(5), 1–7 (2020). Art no. 1300907
D.C. Rorer, D.G. Onn, H. Meyer, Thermodynamic properties of molybdenum in its superconducting and normal state. Phys. Rev. 138, A1661–A1668 (1965)
T.H. Geballe, B.T. Matthias, E. Corenzwit, G.W. Hull, Superconductivity in molybdenum. Phys. Rev. Lett. 8, 313–313 (1962)
D. Yohannes, A. Kirichenko, S. Sarwana, S.K. Tolpygo, Parametric testing of HYPRES superconducting integrated circuit fabrication processes. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 17(2), 181–186 (2007)
S.K. Tolpygo, V. Bolkhovsky, T.J. Weir, L.M. Johnson, M.A. Gouker, W.D. Oliver, Fabrication process and properties of fully-planarized deep-submicron Nb/Al–\(\mathrm {AlO}_{\mathrm {x}}/\mathrm {Nb}\) Josephson junctions for VLSI circuits. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 25(3), 1–12 (2015)
T. Jabbari, E.G. Friedman, Inductive and capacitive coupling noise in superconductive VLSI circuits. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 33(9), 3800707 (2023)
M. Hatzakis, B.J. Canavello, J.M. Shaw, Single-step optical lift-off process. IBM J. Res. Develop. 24(4), 452–460 (1980)
J.M. Meckbach, M. Merker, S.J. Buehler, K. Ilin, B. Neumeier, U. Kienzle, E. Goldobin, R. Kleiner, D. Koelle, M. Siegel, Sub-\(\mu \mathrm {m}\) Josephson junctions for superconducting quantum devices. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 23(3), 1100504 (2013)
D. Berkoh, S. Kulkarni, Challenges in lift-off process using CAMP negative photoresist in III–V IC fabrication. IEEE Trans. Semicond. Manuf. 32(4), 513–517 (2019)
T. May, M. Schubert, G. Wende, U. Hubner, L. Fritzsch, H.-G. Meyer, Cross-type submicron Josephson junctions using SNS technology for Josephson voltage standard applications. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 13(2), 142–145 (2003)
M. Bal, J. Long, R. Zhao, H. Wang, S. Park, C.R.H. McRae, T. Zhao, R.E. Lake, V. Monarkha, S. Simbierowicz, D. Frolov, R. Pilipenko, S. Zorzetti, A. Romanenko, C. Liu, R. McDermott, D.P. Pappas, Overlap junctions for superconducting quantum electronics and amplifiers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 118(11), 112601 (2021)
W.L. McMillan, Tunneling model of the superconducting proximity effect. Phys. Rev. 175, 537–542 (1968)
S.K. Tolpygo, D. Amparo, Electrical stress effect on Josephson tunneling through ultrathin AlOx barrier in Nb/Al/AlOx/Nb junctions. J. Appl. Phys. 104(6), 063904 (2008)
H. Kumar, T. Jabbari, G. Krylov, K. Basu, E.G. Friedman, R. Karri, Toward increasing the difficulty of reverse engineering of RSFQ circuits. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 30(3), 1–13 (2020)
Y. Mustafa, T. Jabbari, S. Köse, Emerging attacks on logic locking in SFQ circuits and related countermeasures. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 32(3), 1–8 (2022)
T. Jabbari, H. Zandi, F. Foroughi, A. Bozbey, M. Fardmanesh, Investigation of readout cell configuration and parameters on functionality and stability of bi-directional RSFQ TFF. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 26(3), 1–5 (2016)
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Bias distribution in ERSFQ VLSI circuits, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (2020), pp. 1–5
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Bias networks for high complexity energy efficient single flux quantum circuits, in Proceedings of the Government Microcircuit Applications & Critical Technology Conference (2020)
T. Jabbari, H. Zandi, M. Fardmanesh, Frequency limitation due to switching transition of the bias current in bidirectional RSFQ logic. J. Supercond. Novel Magn. 30, 3619–3624 (2017)
R.E. Miller, W.H. Mallison, A.W. Kleinsasser, K.A. Delin, E.M. Macedo, Niobium trilayer Josephson tunnel junctions with ultrahigh critical current densities. Appl. Phys. Lett. 63(10), 1423–1425 (1993)
S.K. Tolpygo, V. Bolkhovsky, D.E. Oates, R. Rastogi, S. Zarr, A.L. Day, T.J. Weir, A. Wynn, L.M. Johnson, Superconductor electronics fabrication process with MoNx kinetic inductors and self-shunted Josephson junctions. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 28(4), 1–12 (2018)
V.F. Pavlidis, I. Savidis, E.G. Friedman, Three-Dimensional Integrated Circuit Design, 2nd edn. (Morgan Kaufmann, Burlington, 2017)
H. Jun, J. Cho, K. Lee, H. Son, K. Kim, H. Jin, K. Kim, HBM (high bandwidth memory) DRAM technology and architecture, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Memory Workshop (2017)
C. Monzio Compagnoni, A. Goda, A.S. Spinelli, P. Feeley, A.L. Lacaita, A. Visconti, Reviewing the evolution of the NAND flash technology. Proc. IEEE 105(9), 1609–1633 (2017)
B. Vaisband, 3-D ICs as a Platform for Heterogeneous Systems Integration, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, 2017
S.K. Tolpygo, V. Bolkhovsky, R. Rastogi, S. Zarr, A.L. Day, E. Golden, T.J. Weir, A. Wynn, L.M. Johnson, Planarized fabrication process with two layers of SIS Josephson junctions and integration of SIS and SFS \(\pi \)-junctions. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 29(5), 1–8 (2019)
G. Krylov, E.G. Friedman, Design for testability of SFQ circuits. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 27(8), 1–7 (2017)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Krylov, G., Jabbari, T., Friedman, E.G. (2024). Superconductive IC Manufacturing. In: Single Flux Quantum Integrated Circuit Design. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47475-0_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47475-0_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-47474-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-47475-0
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)