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After Napoleon

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Scandinavia After Napoleon

Part of the book series: War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850 ((WCS))

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Abstract

This chapter recounts the upheaval brought upon the Scandinavian countries by the Napoleonic Wars, which led them all to the brink of annihilation, before it assesses the impact of the Napoleonic experiences on their short- and longer-term development. A general sense that they were too small to survive as individual countries gave them impetus for unification. What Eric Hobsbawm has labelled as the ‘threshold principle’ thus fundamentally impacted ideas about nation-statehood. But whereas Sweden and Norway were united in 1814 and Finland was granted autonomy and protection after Russia’s conquest of that country in 1809, Denmark fought for its very existence at the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815. Its German possessions brought the Danish state into the orbit of the German Confederation and triggered national conflict over Schleswig. Situating the post-Napoleonic political and national development in Scandinavia in a context of international politics and a European ideological landscape, this chapter traces the advent of the Danish-German conflict and explores the uneasy relationship between Sweden and Norway, arguing that the different constitutional paths embarked upon by the Scandinavian countries and the influence of liberal nationalism facilitated the emergence of Scandinavianist ideology from the late 1830s, at which point Denmark, Norway and Sweden had reconciled and ended several centuries of rivalry.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Nipperdey (1983, 11).

  2. 2.

    Sather (2015, 226).

  3. 3.

    Friis (1897–1899), Glenthøj and Ottosen (2014, 89–97, 145 ff).

  4. 4.

    Höjer (1943 (II), 3–50), Barton (2009, 136–160), Plunket Barton (1921, 251–291).

  5. 5.

    Prutsch (2013, 1–3).

  6. 6.

    Agnarsdóttir (2004), Hauksdóttir (2013).

  7. 7.

    Clason (ed.) (1925, 71–73), cf. Sather (2015, 233).

  8. 8.

    Agnarsdóttir (ed.) (2016, 227), cf. Agnarsdóttir (2011), Aall (1859, 144 (quotation)).

  9. 9.

    Glenthøj and Ottosen (2014), Hyvik (2003, 189–192), Feldbæk (1998, 338), Worm-Müller (1918, 285), Stråth (2005, 104–105), Dyrvik (2005, 39), Steen (1951, 106–108), Falsen (1814), Ottosen (2015, 356–357).

  10. 10.

    Dyrvik (2005, 39), Steen (1951, 106–108), Falsen (1814), Ottosen (2015, 356–357), Höjer (1960 (III), 195–205).

  11. 11.

    Höjer (1954, 230), Schinkel and Bergman (1856, 386, 395–396), Feldbæk (2002, 500), Sather (2015, 282–285), Hemström (2005, 61–64), cf. [Adlersparre] (1831, 20–21), Grade (1913, 265–268, 294–925), Villstrand (1999), Persson (1986, 247).

  12. 12.

    LUB. HA. 4. II:4. ”En gamal Bondes Testamente till sina barn och Grannar”.

  13. 13.

    UUB. HS. Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt. F.730. Armfelt to Gustav IV Adolf 05.02.1808; Norberg (1998, 57–60), Edgren (2010, 11–12), Stråth (1994, 55–56), Ericson (2003, 158), Carlsson (1968a, 108), Berg (2001, 112–114).

  14. 14.

    Bregnsbo (2014), Holm (1912, 367–376), Höjer (1943 (II), 285–288), Hedin (1953, 160–161), Nørregård (1948, 30–32), Frandsen (2008, 92), Carr (1963, 41–42), Ostenfeld (1909, 20).

  15. 15.

    RAS. RAS. Kabinettet/UD. Huvudarkivet 1681–1952. F 1 A. 3. B43. Charles John to G. Löwenhielm 28.06.1814 (quotation), Höjer (1943 (II), 285–290), Nørregård (1948, 41–42, 63–65), Jorgensen (1935, 20).

  16. 16.

    Aaslestad (2015, 226).

  17. 17.

    Vick (2014, 4–5, 7–8, 27–28, 132–133, 266–270), Nørregård (1948, 59–60).

  18. 18.

    Vick (2014, 15, 279), Nørregård (1948, 98).

  19. 19.

    Stråth (2016, 44) (first quotation), Schroeder (1994, 572) (second quotation), cf. 514; Nørregård (1960, 10), Nørregård (1948, 7–16, 18–19, 60–62, 151), Vick (2014, 132–133), Höjer (1954, 233).

  20. 20.

    Nørregård (1948, 71–86, 104–105, 108–109, 129–131, 191–194), Höjer (1954, 233–234).

  21. 21.

    Höjer (1960 (III), 24), Vick (2014, 321), Schroeder (1994, 575–582).

  22. 22.

    For different interpretations of the international system established at the Congress of Vienna and its subsequent workings, see Schroeder (1994), Gruner (1992), Kraehe (1992), Stråth (2016), De Graaf (2020).

  23. 23.

    Stråth (2016, 53, 62 ff), Schroeder (1994, especially chapter 13).

  24. 24.

    Höjer (1960, 11, 113–114), Broers (1996, 10–13, 26–27), Lyons (2006, 20), Vick (2014, 258–65), Stråth (2016, 56).

  25. 25.

    Vick (2014, 233–34, 243, 249–52, 255–57, 328–9), Lyons (2006, 18–19, 32, 41, 44, 112), Broers (1996, 11, 25–26), Weitzel (2006, 118–21), Laven and Riall (2000, 11–2), Reinermann (1971), Schroeder (1994, 608–13, 621–37, 666–7, 672–90, 712), Bullen (1977, 364–5, 372–73), Stråth (2016, 66–71, 84, 87–90, 98, 168), Caiani (2017, 452–53), Prutsch (2013, 145–46), Ciachir (1979, 712).

  26. 26.

    Bullen (1977), Broers (1996, 36, 108), Lyons (2006, 47).

  27. 27.

    Schroeder (1994, 764), Broers (1996, 118), Stråth (2016, 56 ff, 168 ff).

  28. 28.

    Glenthøj (2014, 17–23), Bjørn and Due-Nielsen (2003, 19–20), Nerland (2007), Höjer (1954, 233–252), Elgström (2000, 85–91), Höjer (1960 (III), 33–34, 40, 50, 247), De Graaf (2020, 136 (quotation)).

  29. 29.

    Fink (1950, 93 f., 97 ff., 104 ff.), Glenthøj (2014, 104), Fink (1946, 288), Rahbek (1973, 78).

  30. 30.

    Nørregård (1969, 260–276, 1974, 115–121), Fink (1950, 93, 100).

  31. 31.

    Höjer (1954, 267–270, 276–277, 1960, 259–260, 302–303), Carlsson (1968a, 114–115), Stråth (2012, 108), Almquist (1914), Boberg (1989, 130–140), Nørregård (1969, 271–276, 1974, 9, 115–118, 170–175, 257), Becker-Christensen (1981, 85–86, 103).

  32. 32.

    Nørregård (1969, 40–41, 209–219), RAS. Kabinettet/UD. HA. F 1 A. 1. 10. Report from the Swedish negotiators 24.08.1841; Höjer (1954, 231, 276, 1960 (III), 275–284).

  33. 33.

    Nørregård (1960, 34), Glenthøj (2012, 350).

  34. 34.

    Höjer (1960 (III), 32–40), Nørregård (1960, 63–68).

  35. 35.

    Schroeder (1994, 589), Nørregård (1960, 70).

  36. 36.

    Höjer (1954, 236), Nørregård (1960, 73), Höjer (1960 (III), 40), Berg (2001, 67–70).

  37. 37.

    For traditional views on the “Restoration”, see Droz (1967), Hobsbawm (1962, 99–131, 234–52), Tombs (1996, 329–53). For revisionist perspectives, see Broers (1996), Lyons (2006), Prutsch (2013), Caiani (2017), Laven and Riall (2000), and especially the contributions to Broers and Caiani (eds.) 2020 (volumes I–II).

  38. 38.

    Caiani (2017, jf). Sellin (2014).

  39. 39.

    Laven and Riall (2000, 2–5, 7), Schroeder (1994, 576, 586), Lyons (2006, 7), Broers (1996, 3), Schneid (2011, xi–xiii), Vick (2014, 233), Caiani (2017, 443, 451).

  40. 40.

    Broers (1996, 13), Seip (2001, 313–14) (“The constitution was democratic”),cf. Hommerstad (2012, 30–32), Nørgaard (2016, 24–38).

  41. 41.

    Meriggi (2000, 55), Esdaile (2000, 68–75), Laven and Riall (2000, 12–14), Davis (2006, 275–294), Lyons (2006, 57–58), Büssem (1974), Götschmann (2002), Bjørgo et al. (1995, 247), Berg (2001, 67), Stråth (2005, 109–12).

  42. 42.

    Fabricius Møller (2014, 545–7 (quotations)), cf. Holmøyvik (2012, 541–44), Ottosen (2015).

  43. 43.

    Hilson (2006, 208), Ottosen (2019, 226, 228).

  44. 44.

    Nielsen (1886, 6), Prutsch (2013, 68, 89, 110), Schroeder (1994, 546, 597), Kraehe (2001 [1974], 172–173).

  45. 45.

    Fink (1950, 93–95, 100), Nørregård (1948, 161–163, 1960, 139–155).

  46. 46.

    Frandsen (2008, 70–110, 123–129, jf. 51–52), Ostenfeld (1909, 32–33, 88–99), Nørregård (1960, 139–155). On the Hambach Festival, see Foerster (1988).

  47. 47.

    Johansen (1894–1895), Rasmussen (2010), Thorsøe (1879, 186–189). For the most recent study of the persecution of Jews, see Blüdnikow (2019). Unrest in Copenhagen was in all likelihood linked to the German ‘hepp-hepp riots’ at the same time, cf. Rowe (2016, 136–138), Gehring-Münzel (1992, 121–177).

  48. 48.

    Pedersen (2008, 340–345), Helm (1986, 16–17, 31–32), Bjørn and Due-Nielsen (2003, 140–141), Blüdnikow (1986, 42–43), Engelstoft and Wendt (1964 [1934], 18), Jorgensen (1957–1959, 35), Jensen (1931–1934 (I), 61), Galster (1958, 148–151), Fabricius (1937–1939, 123–125), Hedegaard (1975 (II), 372), Nørregård (1950–1952), Fink (1950, 95), Nørregård (1960, 135–137).

  49. 49.

    Jansson (2008, 21 (quotation)), Jensen (1931–1934 (I-II)), Bonderup (1970–1972).

  50. 50.

    Langslet (2014, 166–202, 271–287), Glenthøj (2014, 86–91), Nørregård (1974, 10–17), Becker-Christensen (1981, 85–86), Danstrup (1944, 212), Glenthøj (2015, 297–298).

  51. 51.

    Johansson (2012), Holmøyvik (2012, 541–544), Svare (1940–1942, 410–12, 414–25).

  52. 52.

    Falsen (1824, 12 (quotation)), Bergsgård (1932, 151–152, 169–177), Jorgensen (1935, 32–46, 57–62), Bjørgo et al. (1995, 247), Berg (2001, 67).

  53. 53.

    Seip (1974 (I), 148–158), Seip (1990, 61 (first quotation), cf. 58), Sanness (1959, 274) (second quotation), Hommerstad (2014), Bergsgård (1932, 263–265), Sejersted (1978, 104), Nilsson (2010, 17), Ottosen (2015, 348), Borell (1948, 26, 30–34).

  54. 54.

    Berg (2001, 114), Bjørgo et al., 237–39, Seip (1981 (II), 29), Nilsson (2018, 265–76).

  55. 55.

    Lee (1980, 41 (quotation)), Stråth (2005, 63–75), Kan (1977).

  56. 56.

    Nordmark (2001, 18–55), Norberg (1998, 61–74), Boberg (1989, 34 ff., 51–59, 113–161). On Hierta, see Kihlberg (1968). On Karl John and freedom of expression in Norway, see Nymark (2020). On the Swedish and Norwegian press in the 1810s and 1820s, see Edgren (2019).

  57. 57.

    Nymark (2020, 99–101, 126–152), Höjer (1960 (III), 125–126, 233, 327–331), Stråth (2012, 51–53), Norberg (1998, 70–74, 89), Kihlberg (1922, 15–21), Boberg (1989, 166), Stenroth (2005, 27), Frydenlund (2009, 9).

  58. 58.

    Borell (1948, 18–27, 29), Stråth (2012, 46–47), Norborg (1999 [1981], 84–85), Carlsson (1968b, 164–168), Holm (1972, 126–128), Höjer (1960, 304–305), Carlsson (1968a, 114), Stråth (2012, 108), Almquist (1914, 199), Nilsson (2010, 13), Norborg (1977, 186), Holmberg (1946, 153).

  59. 59.

    Hammarlund (2017, 169–172, 177–185, 191–195), Nordmark (2001, 53–55), Stråth (2012, 47–50).

  60. 60.

    Borell (1948, 36–60), Norberg (1998, 89, jf. 64, 94), Höjer (1960, 355), Nilsson (2015), Stråth (2012, 50), Norborg (1999 [1981], 85), Carlsson (1968c, 198–202), Holmberg (1946, 68–69), Kihlberg (1922, 21–32), Norborg (1977, 187–188), Christensson (2008, 12), Gasslander (1949, 16).

  61. 61.

    Stråth (2005, 190, 2012, 89).

  62. 62.

    Jansson (1961, 13) (on “jutar“ (Jutes)), Carlsson (1970, 19), Geijer and Afzelius (1816, 273) (quote from the folksong), cf. Berg (1835, 273), Stenroth (2005, 5)9 (quote from Adlerbeth), Hammarsköld (1813, 29–32) (quote from Hammarsköld), Tegnér (1905, 198n) (last quote), cf. Ottosen (2012, 297).

  63. 63.

    Rasmussen (1994), Clausen (ed.) (1899, 63–64), Hjelmslev (ed.) (1941, 131), Glenthøj and Ottosen (2014, 191–197, cf. 81–83), Ottosen (2016).

  64. 64.

    Clausen (1900, 28–30), Bjursten (1852, 6–7), Becker-Christensen (1981, 33–35), Jorgensen (1935, 74), Ekman (2010, 36).

  65. 65.

    Oehlenschläger (1831, 370 (first quotation)), Jansson (2008, 21 (second quotation)), Artéus (2012, 46 (third quotation)), Stråth (1994, 56–60, 2005, 170–171, 189–190), Becker-Christensen (1981, 35–36), Hilson (2006, 195–196), Sørensen (2004, 57–58), Hyvik (2016), Glenthøj (2016, 17–19), Gerven (2020, 68–77), Sanness (1959, 96–145), Sørensen (2001, 93–160).

  66. 66.

    Höjer (1960 (III), 274), Nørregård (1960, 105, 1974, 21, 159, 166–169), Becker-Christensen (1981, 177).

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    Glenthøj, R., Ottosen, M.N. (2024). After Napoleon. In: Scandinavia After Napoleon. War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46561-1_3

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