Abstract
The end of the Crimean War was followed by a marked shift in Scandinavian foreign policy. Having incurred the wrath of Russia and secured a treaty of questionable value with France and Britain, Sweden-Norway looked to Denmark to form a barrier against Russia. Meanwhile, Denmark’s relations with the German Confederation deteriorated rapidly as the conflict over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein—left unresolved by the First Schleswig War—escalated, contributing also to a political deadlock between Danish unitary statists and nationalists. It was thus hardly surprising that the Scandinavian countries found reciprocal interest in a military alliance. In addition to explaining political developments in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, this chapter shows how a Scandinavian military alliance was very nearly entered into in 1857–1858, only for chance events to prevent the treaty from being concluded. The chapter also shows how a change of government in Denmark in 1857, bringing the national liberal C.C. Hall to power as council president, brought an emerging new course in Danish foreign policy as Hall looked for solutions to the conflict over the duchies.Meanwhile, changes of governments and monarch in Sweden-Norway had altered the political premise for Scandinavianism, although it was not yet clear to anyone exactly how. However, as the Danish-German conflict intensified and Napoleon III looked to change the map of Europe, it was becoming increasingly clear that the prospect of war began to loom, although where and how war would break out was a moot point.
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Notes
- 1.
Alm (1856, 104).
- 2.
Alm (1856, 107).
- 3.
Harvard and Hillström (2013, 61–62, 81–88).
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
RAK. Kongehuset, Frederick 7. 9:2. Frederick VII to Charles 29 March 1856 (quotation) and 9:8. Frederick to Oscar 29 May 1856.
- 8.
- 9.
Holmberg (1946, 255–256), RAK. Kongehuset, Frederick 7. 9:7. Oscar to Frederick 20 June 1856; Petersen (ed.) 1908, 102, 107.
- 10.
- 11.
- 12.
- 13.
- 14.
- 15.
Hatton (1967, 132–33).
- 16.
- 17.
RAK. Kongehuset, Frederick 7. 9:7. Oscar to Frederick 15 August 1856 and 9:2. Charles to Frederick 5th September, 27 September and 3 October 1856; Trap (1966 (II), 250–253), Manthey (1909 (I), 10), Ulvros (2007, 252–254), Sturzen-Becker (1911 (I), 232 (quotation)), Møller (1948, 37–38), Holmberg (1946, 269).
- 18.
- 19.
BFA. Oscar I’s and Queen Josefina’s archive. No. 37. “Underdanigst Rapport (Litt A-a till arkivet 67)”. No 17 (first quotation), Møller (1948, 34, 40–41 (second quotation)).
- 20.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
- 25.
- 26.
- 27.
Frahm (1930, 351–353).
- 28.
- 29.
Holmberg (1946, 280), BFA. Oscar I’s and Queen Josefina’s archive. No. 47. Om Muligheden af og Betingelserne for Den Skandinaviske Idées Fuldbyrdelse (:af C: Ploug) (first quotation) and No. 37. Kopia: Mémoire från en väl underrättad person i Danmark (Memoirs of a well-informed person in Denmark) (remaining quotations).
- 30.
- 31.
- 32.
RAK. Kongehuset, Frederick 7. 9:8. Frederick to Oscar [no day] July 1856 (draft) and 9:7. Oscar to Frederick 26 September 1856 and 25 February 1857 (quotation).
- 33.
UUB. F 860:d. HH. 1. Oscar I to Virgin 13 January 1857.
- 34.
Møller (1948, 57), RAK. Kongehuset, Frederick 7. 9:8. Frederick to Oscar [11] March 1856 (by the king, with his signature. Never sent) and Frederick to Oscar 11 March 1857 (official reply).
- 35.
- 36.
- 37.
- 38.
- 39.
RAK. PA-05255. Blixen Finecke to Carlsen 27 January and 19 March 1857; Hatton (1967, 133–134 (quotation)).
- 40.
- 41.
- 42.
- 43.
Glenthøj (2014,234 ff., 248–250).
- 44.
- 45.
- 46.
- 47.
Petersen (ed.) (1908, 105).
- 48.
- 49.
- 50.
Gullberg (1952, 38–40), Eriksson (1954, 250, 264, 273–274, 278–279, 323–324, 331–332), Møller (1948, 37, 69), De Geer (1906 [1892] (I), 225–228, 242, 270–271, 279), Gasslander (1949, 212), Stang (1943, 12, 16–17), Ohlsson (1994, 93), Stråth (2012, 60, 321–322), Norberg (1998, 149–151), Nilsson (1989, 9–13), Eriksson, ‘Gripenstedt’.
- 51.
Eriksson (1954, 11–13, 243, 247, 256, 281–283), Thermænius (1943, 35–39, 41–42), Bjørgo et al. (1995, 294), Møller (1948, 36–39), Bååth-Holmberg (1891, 304–309, 329, 332 ff.), Qvanten (1900, 42), Hallendorff (1914, 19–23, 28–29), Gullberg (1952, 49), Jansson (2007, 119–120), Norborg (1999 [1981], 163), Hedin (1953a, 18–20), Dardel (1911 (I), 139–141, 188), Eimer (1978, 261), Stråth (2005, 149).
- 52.
- 53.
Eriksson (1954, 332), Friis (1959, 7–9, 14, 1963, 16), Eriksson (1954 (article), 418–419), Friis (1959, 7–8, 16–17), Gullberg (1952, 34), Holmberg (1946, 225n), Dardel (1911 (I), 139–140, 147 (quotation), 157), Thermænius (1943, 38), Møller (1948, 70), Bjørgo et al. (1995, 294), Oscar II (1962, 26–27).
- 54.
- 55.
- 56.
- 57.
- 58.
- 59.
- 60.
- 61.
- 62.
- 63.
- 64.
- 65.
- 66.
- 67.
- 68.
- 69.
Glenthøj (2014, 190–191, 195–196).
- 70.
- 71.
Møller (1974 [1958] (I), 218–230).
- 72.
- 73.
- 74.
- 75.
- 76.
- 77.
Glenthøj (2014, 284 f).
- 78.
- 79.
- 80.
- 81.
- 82.
- 83.
Clausen (1900, 138–139), Møller (1948, 80–81, 84, 95–96, 204–205, 210, 1960, 70–71), RAK. Kongehuset. Frederick 7. 9:2. Charles to Frederick 21 September 1857, cf. Frederick to Charles (draft) same date; RAK. PA-6673. 1. Hage to Hamilton 12 October 1857; Eriksson (1947, 315, 1954, 282–283), Glenthøj (2014, 277).
- 84.
- 85.
- 86.
- 87.
RAK. PA-6673. 1. Hage to Hamilton 5 April 1858 and Hamilton to Tornérhjelm 6 April 1858 (quotation), presumably attached to Hamilton to Hage 26 April 1858.
- 88.
- 89.
- 90.
- 91.
- 92.
- 93.
Bridge and Bullen (2004, 128).
- 94.
- 95.
Goldfrank (1994, 293 (first quotation)), Hobsbawm (1992, 31), Grew (1963, 36–37 (second quotation)), Salvemini (1957, 7 ff.), Mosse (1958, 76–81), Breuilly (1996, 19–20), Clark (2019, 120–121, 131 ff., 160–162), Varouxakis (2007, 136 ff.), Grenville (1976, 218 ff.), Pflanze (1963, 9–10, 45, 58, 78, 87 f., 146 ff.), Renouvin (1973, 94–103), Johnsen (2023, 103 ff).
- 96.
Bibliography
Archives
Bernadotte Family Archives (Bernadotteska Arkivet), Stockholm (BFA))
Oscar I’s and Queen Josefina’s archive.
• No. 47. Oscar’s notes for 22nd May 1856.
• No. 47. Oscar’s entries for 11th July 1856.
• No. 37. “Underdanigst Rapport (Litt A-a till arkivet 67)”.
• No 17 (first quotation).
• No. 47. Om Muligheden af og Betingelserne for Den Skandinaviske Idées Fuldbyrdelse (by C: Ploug)
• No. 37. Kopia: Mémoire från en väl underrättad person i Danmark (Memoirs of a well-informed person in Denmark) (remaining quotations).
• No. 37. Frederick VII to Oscar I 3rd December 1856 and 19th April 1857
National Archives (Rigsarkivet), Copenhagen (RAK)
Royal Archives (Kongehuset): Frederik 7.
• 9:2. Frederick VII to Charles 29th March 1856 (quotation).
• 9:2. Charles to Frederick 5th September, 27th September and 3rd October 1856
• 9:2. Charles to Frederick 21st September 1857, cf. Frederick to Charles (draft) same date.
• 9:7. Oscar to Frederick 20th June 1856.
• 9:7. Oscar to Frederick 15th August 1856
• 9:7. Oscar to Frederick 26th September 1856 and 25th February 1857 (quotation).
• 9:7. Oscar to Frederick 27th March 1857.
• 9:8. Frederick to Oscar 29th May 1856.
• 9:8. Frederick to Oscar [11th] March 1856 (by the king, with his signature. Never sent) and Frederick to Oscar 11th March 1857 (official reply).
• 9:8. Frederick to Oscar [no day] July 1856 (draft).
• 9:8. Frederick to Oscar 19th April 1857 (draft).
Private Archives (Privatarkiver). PA-05255: Carlsen, Hans Rasmussen.
• Blixen Finecke to Carlsen 6th November 1856 and 16th January 1856.
• 2. Blixen Finecke to Carlsen 27th January 1857.
• 2. Blixen Finecke to Carlsen 19th March 1857 (quotation).
• 2. Blixen Finecke to Carlsen 10th July 1857.
Private Archives (Privatarkiver). PA-06673: Hage, Alfred, Købmand, og hustru.
• 1. Hage to Hamilton 12th October 1857
• 1. Hage to Hamilton 5th April 1858 and Hamilton to Tornérhjelm 6th April 1858 (quotation), presumably attached to Hamilton to Hage 26th April 1858.
Private Archives (Privatarkiver). PA-07119: Hatting, Jørgen.
• 1. Manuskript vedrørende Carl Ploug, (Uafsluttet).
Otto-von-Bismarck-Stiftung, Friedrichsruh (OBS)
Beständen (B) 30/18.
• Carlsen to Bismarck 9th January 1858 (Carlsen’s quotations).
Beständen (B) 117/10.
• Tornérhjelm to Bismarck 14th October 1858 (Tornérhjelm’s quotations).
Royal Library (Kungliga Biblioteket), Stockholm (KBS)
L:10. Sohlmans samling.
• L10:2. L.K. Daa to Sohlman 15.10.1857 and G.A. Krohg to Sohlman 31.01. 1862.
Uppsala University Library (Uppsala Universitetsbibliotek) (UUB)
Hamilton. Handlingar (HH). F 860:d.
• 1. Oscar I to Virgin 13th January 1857.
Newspapers
Berlingske Tidende
• 16.04.1856
• 07.06.1856
Dagbladet
• 31. Marts 1857.
Fædrelandet
• 01.03.1856
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Glenthøj, R., Ottosen, M.N. (2024). Scandinavianism in Political Practice. In: Scandinavia and Bismarck. War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46557-4_3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46557-4_3
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