Abstract
Gender also intersected with ethnicity and race, thus leaving many inhabitants of our planet disadvantaged in multiple ways. This chapter focuses on the struggle by physical scientists against racial oppression. As minorities gained increased access to higher education in many countries in the second half of the twentieth century, they also organized. This chapter examines the growth of the National Society of Black Physicists (NSBP) and the American Astronomical Society’s Committee on the Status of Minorities in Astronomy (CSMA), among other organizations.
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Notes
- 1.
Burbidge (1978).
- 2.
Bok (1973), 3.
- 3.
Vincennes Sun-Commercial (1973).
- 4.
Humphreys (2018).
- 5.
Zirker (1978), 309.
- 6.
Burbidge (1978).
- 7.
Peery (1977).
- 8.
Bok (1973), 7.
- 9.
Reed (1977), 28.
- 10.
Bishop (2002), 219–20.
- 11.
Shipman (1983), 1018.
- 12.
Shipman (1981), 930.
- 13.
Glanz (2001).
- 14.
Committee for Sexual-Orientation & Gender Minorities in Astronomy (2020).
- 15.
Schmelz (2015).
- 16.
Cahalan (2012).
- 17.
Ghorayshi (2018).
- 18.
Harris (2019).
- 19.
Urry (1993), 7.
- 20.
Space Telescope Science Institute (1993), 39.
- 21.
Prescod-Weinstein (2014).
- 22.
Prescod-Weinstein (2014).
- 23.
Nicola Jones (2018).
- 24.
Prescod-Weinstein (2015).
- 25.
Prescod-Weinstein (2016).
- 26.
Tyson (2020).
- 27.
Prescod-Weinstein (2018).
- 28.
Davenport (1999), 7
- 29.
Mickens (2002), 111.
- 30.
Mickens (2002), 112.
- 31.
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (1974a).
- 32.
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (1974b).
- 33.
- 34.
Reed (1990), iv.
- 35.
McGruder and Akujor (1990).
- 36.
MacKellar (1998).
- 37.
McGruder and Akujor (1990).
- 38.
Allotey (1990).
- 39.
Holbrook (1998).
- 40.
MacKellar (1998), 223.
- 41.
Maya Jones (2016).
- 42.
Tyson (2019), 42–45.
- 43.
McGruder (1992).
- 44.
McGruder (2001).
- 45.
Whitelock (2004), 55.
- 46.
Whitelock (2022), 166.
- 47.
Whitelock (2004), 55–56.
- 48.
Whitelock (2009), 11–12.
- 49.
Whitelock (2009), 12.
- 50.
Whitelock (2020).
- 51.
W.K. Kellogg Foundation (2007), 67.
- 52.
Whitelock (2009),12.
- 53.
Oluseyi and Horwitz (2021), 341.
- 54.
Holbrook (2008).
- 55.
Holbrook and Brown (2004).
- 56.
Holbrook (2009).
- 57.
Bohannon (2004).
- 58.
Abraham (2005).
- 59.
Horsthemke (2004), 40–41.
- 60.
Horsthemke (2004), 41.
- 61.
Horsthemke (2008).
- 62.
Horsthemke (2017), 262.
- 63.
Holbrook et al. (2012), 777, 779–80.
- 64.
Holbrook et al. (2012), 777, 780.
- 65.
Holbrook (2010).
- 66.
McGruder et al. (2011).
- 67.
Dave and Holbrook (2012).
- 68.
Elmegreen (1995).
- 69.
American Astronomical Society (1998).
- 70.
Basri (2011).
- 71.
Basri (2011).
- 72.
Basri (2011).
- 73.
Basri (2014).
- 74.
Sanders (2003).
- 75.
Sanders (2003).
- 76.
Roberts (2005).
- 77.
Harris (2019).
- 78.
Dinolfo (2014).
- 79.
American Astronomical Society (2000), 910.
- 80.
Lincoln (2012).
- 81.
Mac Donald (2011).
- 82.
Williams (2015).
- 83.
Evans (2015).
- 84.
Stassun (2020a).
- 85.
Stassun (2000), ii.
- 86.
Stassun (2005), 27.
- 87.
Stassun (2002a).
- 88.
Stassun (2002b).
- 89.
Stassun (2005), 26.
- 90.
Stassun et al. (2011)
- 91.
Szrom (2015).
- 92.
Stassun (2013).
- 93.
Vanderbilt University (2007).
- 94.
Stassun (2020b).
- 95.
Sobel (2016).
- 96.
Holbrook et al. (2018).
- 97.
Bellovary (2016).
- 98.
Bellovary (2016).
- 99.
Powell (2013).
- 100.
Bastien et al. (2013).
- 101.
Christensen-Dalsgaard (2013), 405.
- 102.
John Johnson (2013).
- 103.
John Johnson (2013).
- 104.
Jenkins (2016).
- 105.
Mayol (2016).
- 106.
Jenkins (2016).
- 107.
Jenkins (2016).
- 108.
Haruch (2014).
- 109.
Isler (2014a), iv–v.
- 110.
Norman et al. (2013), 160–61.
- 111.
Norman et al. (2013), 162–63.
- 112.
Isler (2014b), 17.
- 113.
Isler (2015a).
- 114.
Isler (2015b).
- 115.
Isler (2015c).
- 116.
Eddy (2017).
- 117.
Miller and Stassun (2014).
- 118.
Rudolph et al. (2019), 4, 14–15.
- 119.
Rudolph et al. (2019), 5.
- 120.
Rudolph (2019), 56.
- 121.
Rudolph (2019), 57.
- 122.
Hotovy (2017).
- 123.
Lang (1994), 137–38.
- 124.
Nordhaus et al. (2020).
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Determann, J.M. (2023). Visible Spectrum. In: Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Astronomy. Space and Society. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46113-2_4
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