Abstract
The food domain is traversed by a number of mythologies concerning nature. This chapter explores some relevant case studies, ranging from “clean eating” to aphrodisiac substances, from genetic manipulations to the so-called organic paradigm, in order to identify the main meaning-making processes underlying them and the effects of meaning resulting from them. After an initial theoretical framing, some of the most important trends in contemporary foodspheres are analysed through a semiocultural approach, based on the discussion of significant examples and relevant literature in the considered field of studies. This offers crucial insights on the discursivisation of nature in food-related discourses and practices, pointing out a series of crucial inconsistencies and problematic aspects related to it.
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Notes
- 1.
In fact, as Greimas (1983) effectively pointed out, it is essential to remark that these are not ontological realities. Raw food (e.g. a salad, a fruit salad, a beef tartare), in other terms, is not “natura”, but means “nature”; similarly, cooked food (e.g. bread, a steak, a risotto), being more elaborate, means “culture”; and rotten food (e.g. particular types of cheese, beers, etc.), which is a natural transformation of raw materials—sometimes requiring particularly refined techniques—, stands between these two poles. The nature/culture opposition, in other words, necessarily relies on an effect of meaning resulting from different perceptions of the degree of elaboration of foods: the more they are elaborated, the more they are perceived as “cultural”; the less they are, the more they are perceived as “natural” (Marrone 2017: 24). However, as this chapter shows, this fact tends to be generally neglected or disregarded.
- 2.
As Lévi-Strauss noted, in fact, two levels can be distinguished: “the boundary between nature and culture … puts the roasted and the smoked on the side of nature, the boiled on the side of culture as to means; or, as to results, the smoked on the side of culture, the roasted and the boiled on the side of nature” (Lévi-Strauss 1965, Engl. Trans. 2013: 46). In other words, “it would seem as if the prolonged enjoyment of a cultural product involved, sometimes on the level of ritual and sometimes on that of myth, a corresponding concession in favour of nature: when the result is long-lasting, the means must be precarious, and vice versa” (Lévi-Strass 1968, Engl. Trans. 1978: 489).
- 3.
- 4.
In fact, the consumption of organic products is often stressed as a crucial aspect of clean eating as a reassurance that they are as unprocessed and “natural” as possible. See infra, Sect. 5.3, for a dedicated section on the discursivisation of nature and naturality as related to the organic paradigm.
- 5.
According to the definition provided in the dictionary, a “whole food” is “a natural food and especially an unprocessed one” (Merriam-Webster 2022, my emphasis). Camille Adamiec also stressed this dimension in her analysis of the development of healthy food trends: “les produits raffinés ont perdu tous leurs nutriments, leurs vitamines, leurs oligoéléments soit l’ensemble de leurs vertus pour la santé. Si «les aliments, pour être parfaitement assimilés, doivent comporter l’ensemble équilibré dont les a dotés la nature» (Valnet 2010 [1985], p. 63), par contraste, les produits industriels sont au mieux des produits morts dans le sens où ils n’ont plus d’effets sur l’organisme, au pire des produits maléfiques puisqu’ils détruisent le corps et l’empoisonnent progressivement” (Adamiec 2013: 62) [Refined products have lost all their nutrients, their vitamins, their trace elements, namely all of their health benefits. If ‘to be perfectly assimilated, foods must include the balanced whole with which nature has endowed them’ (Valnet 2010 [1985], p. 63), by contrast, industrial products are—at best—dead products, since they no longer have any effect on the body; or—at worst—harmful products, since they destroy the body and poison it gradually, my translation].
- 6.
https://www.healthyhabithhi.com/blog/wholefood-vs-processed (Accessed: 4 December 2022).
- 7.
Reprinted and expanded in 2014 as Wheat Belly Total Health (Davis 2014).
- 8.
- 9.
Despite its ubiquity in the mass and especially new media discourses, there is no official or legal definition of the term “superfood” (EUFIC 2012). While increasing efforts have been made to regulate the use of nutrition and health claims in food marketing to ensure that food’s labelling, presentation and advertising is clear and accurate (consider, for instance, the regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 issued by the European Union), several new, generally exotic products have been increasingly celebrated as “superfoods”, becoming largely diffused in Western markets, even though the exceptional nutrient content ascribed to them is not supported by scientific evidence.
- 10.
Niola (2015: Chap. 2) provocatively argues that if once man made his diet, now it is the diet that “makes” man.
- 11.
Refer to the discussion on orthorexia (see infra).
- 12.
Gyorgy Scrinis criticised this phenomenon as the ideology of nutritionism: “Nutrition scientists, dieticians, and public health authorities—the nutrition industry, for short—have implicitly or explicitly encouraged us to think about foods in terms of their nutrient composition, to make the connection between particular nutrients and bodily health, and to construct “nutritionally balanced” diets on this basis. … This focus on nutrients has come to dominate, to undermine, and to replace other ways of engaging with food and of contextualizing the relationship between food and the body (Scrinis 2008: 39; see also Scrinis 2013). Pollan (2008) also insisted on the problems brought about by this new way of looking at food, focusing in particular on the case of margarine.
- 13.
In fact, as illustrated by Quattrociocchi and Vicini (2016), users involved in a community are more likely to focus on specific topics and viewpoints, “isolating themselves” from their surroundings, that is to say, from alternative topics and viewpoints.
- 14.
- 15.
Now rebranded as “The Balanced Blonde”, after a radical change in her habits and image (see infra).
- 16.
https://thebalancedblonde.gumroad.com/l/theblondevegancleanse?layout=profile (Accessed: 30 November 2022).
- 17.
As a consequence of her unbalanced diet, Younger’s hair started falling out, her skin turned orange and she lost her period. A huge debate was raised by her 2014 post “Why I’m Transitioning Away from Veganism” (https://thebalancedblonde.com/2014/06/23/why-im-transitioning-away-from-veganism/), not without ideological distortions and manipulations of her message. What is relevant to consider in relation to the issues described in this chapter is her recognition of her “disordered eating habits” and the unhealthy regimen of food restrictions sha had fallen into.
- 18.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p034s2dx (Accessed: 30 November 2022).
- 19.
https://archive.org/details/BBCHorizonCleanEatingTheDirtyTruthFullDocumentary (Accessed: 29 November 2022).
- 20.
- 21.
“We asked the Hemsley sisters, who cut out all grains, to take part in this film, and they refused. In a statement, they told us, ‘Grains are already abundant in the modern diet so our recipes celebrate other ingredients’. They told us they don’t believe in absolutes and no one way of eating suits everyone” (Clean Eating: The Dirty Truth, 22’ 41’’–22’ 54’’).
- 22.
Consider, for instance, the European Directive 2001/18/CE (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32001L0018), the American National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Standard (2018, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/12/21/2018-27283/national-bioengineered-food-disclosure-standard), and the popular the NON-GMO Project (https://www.nongmoproject.org).
- 23.
- 24.
As said by Pope John Paul II, quoted by Lyman (2000).
- 25.
Available at https://www.coldiretti.it/economia/consumi-gia-200mila-firme-contro-cibo-in-provetta (Accessed: 30 November 2022).
- 26.
Whose variable denomination (ranging from expressions such as “clean”, “animal-free”, “slaughter-free” products to “cultivated”, “cultured”, “synthetic”, “craft”, “artificial” foods”) is also particularly interesting as related to the mythologies of naturality in the food domain (see in particular Buscemi 2015; Szejda et al. 2019; Bertero et al. 2023).
- 27.
Whose inclusion is particularly relevant also on the plastic level: while the pictures used for “natural foods” suggest an effect of reality, in fact, sketches and drawings rather mark a detachment from it.
- 28.
- 29.
This paragraph builds on the research presented in the mentioned paper, selecting and further expanding the issues and examples that are particularly relevant to the purposes of this book.
- 30.
Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRI3Q3ESKN8 (Accessed: 30 November 2022).
- 31.
Building on the Greimassian opposition between the subjective level, which is related to the perspective of the subject, and the objective level, which rather stresses socially and inter-subjectively recognised values, as well as on the contrast between a relative and an absolute dimension, Ferraro (1998) identified four “discursive regimes”. In the causal regime, the emphasis is put on objective facts, and what one does defines what one is. In the positional regime, instead, what one is defines what one does; this is the realm of tradition and socially recognised roles. The third discursive regime is the perspective regime, which is based on the refusal of any external definition, in a subjective perspective. Finally, the multiperspective regime consists in grasping other people’s desires and breaking into their narrative programs as a value-object, combining different perspectives.
- 32.
Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l9_lDREniYU (Accessed: 30 November 2022).
- 33.
I.e. a world’s fair dedicated to food, with respect to different aspects, from sustainability of agricultural practices to haute cuisine, from culinary traditions to eating disorders, etc.
- 34.
http://www.ladietamediterranea.eu (Accessed: 30 October 2022).
- 35.
“Sfondo antico su cui, da Goethe in poi, è stata disegnata l’immagine della modernità”.
- 36.
https://www.thegentlemansjournal.com/10-best-aphrodisiac-foods/ (Accessed: 4 December 2022).
- 37.
https://www.cosmopolitan.com/sex-love/advice/g1022/aphrodisiac-foods-0509/ (Accessed: 4 December 2022).
- 38.
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/aphrodisiac-foods (Accessed: 4 December 2022).
- 39.
From Ancient Greek ἀϕροδισιακός (aphrodisiakós), derived from Αϕροδίτη (“Aphrodite”), the term aphrodisiac, referred to food, in fact etymologically refers to substances “stimulating sexual desire” (Oxford Dictionary 2022).
- 40.
More specifically, according to Hesiod’s Theogony, the goddess Aphrodite was generated precisely from sea foam, made fertile by Uranus’ testicles, which had been hurled into the Aegean waters by Kronos (Ieranò 2019).
- 41.
https://www.nytimes.com/2000/12/15/movies/film-review-candy-power-comes-to-town.html, 15 December 2020 (Accessed: 4 December 2022).
- 42.
For a detailed analysis, see Stano (2018): 51–62.
- 43.
In fact, in most countries in Central and Latin America, hot chocolate is prepared using water, not milk, as it was in ancient times.
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Stano, S. (2023). “Uncooking” the Cooked: How to Eat Nature. In: Critique of Pure Nature. Numanities - Arts and Humanities in Progress, vol 26. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45075-4_5
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