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“Evangelical Illustrations”: Mather’s Experimental Exegesis

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Cotton Mather, Jonathan Edwards, and the Quest for Evangelical Enlightenment

Part of the book series: Christianities in the Trans-Atlantic World ((CTAW))

Abstract

According to his son Samuel, Cotton Mather read at least fifteen chapters of Scripture a day since his youth. His interest in biblical scholarship also began early. He learned Greek and Hebrew as a boy, and for his master’s thesis at Harvard he tackled the debates over the origins and divine inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points in the Old Testament. As a pastor, he devoted considerable energy to exegetical studies for sermon preparation while continuing to immerse himself in the latest biblical scholarship. In 1693, he resolved to employ the fruit of his studies for a new commentary on the Scriptures titled “Biblia Americana,” a resolution he kept until the final months of his life. As recent studies have shown, Mather’s “Biblia” provides a window into some of the most significant intellectual currents of his time. Wishing to uphold his Reformed Protestant tradition’s affirmation of the Bible’s infallibility and authority, Mather responded to new challenges raised against the historicity, authorship, provenance, geographical accuracy, and philology of the Bible as well as questions about traditional conceptions of prophecy and typology—especially as it related to Christological interpretations of the Old Testament. At the same time, he pursued a constructive agenda to channel these new scholarly techniques and findings to expand knowledge of the Bible.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Samuel Mather, Life of Cotton Mather, 7.

  2. 2.

    See the “Editor’s Introductions” to the critical volumes of the BA, especially Smolinski’s “Editor’s Introduction,” in BA, 1:3−189; Smolinski, “Authority and Interpretation”; Smolinski, “How to Go to Heaven, or How Heaven Goes?”; Stievermann, Prophecy, Piety, and the Problem of Historicity; and the following essays from Smolinski and Stievermann, eds., Cotton Mather and Biblia Americana: Solberg, “Mather, the ‘Biblia Americana,’ and the Enlightenment,” 183−202; Dopfell, “Between Biblical Literalism and Scientific Inquiry,” 203−26; Wise, “Mather and the Invisible World,” 227−57; and Smolinski, “‘Eager Imitators of the Egyptian Inventions’: Cotton Mather’s Engagement with John Spencer and the Debate about the Pagan Origin of the Mosaic Laws, Rites, and Customs,” 295−335.

  3. 3.

    Michael Lee argues for this trajectory in Chap. 1, subtitled “Cotton Mather Naturalizes the Supernatural.” Lee, Erosion of Biblical Certainty, 25−51.

  4. 4.

    Mather, Diary, 1:88−89, 103.

  5. 5.

    Mather, Diary, 1:126−27.

  6. 6.

    Mather, Diary, 1:179. Katherine lived until 1716.

  7. 7.

    Cotton Mather, The Sailors Companion and Counsellour (Boston, 1709), ii−iii.

  8. 8.

    Cotton Mather, Addresses to Old Men, and Young Men, and Little Children (Boston, 1690), 7−8.

  9. 9.

    Mather, Diary, 1:127−28.

  10. 10.

    BA, 10:797−98; Mather, Paterna: The Autobiography of Cotton Mather, ed. Ronald A. Bosco (Delmar, NY: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints, 1976), 93−94.

  11. 11.

    BA, 10:797−98.

  12. 12.

    BA, 10:799−803.

  13. 13.

    The preface was written anonymously, so Mather did not mention Böhme explicitly. Also, as mentioned in Chap. 3, Mather used the same quotes cited here from Augustine, Luther, and Spener in his Psalterium and Manuductio ad Ministerium.

  14. 14.

    Translated from Latin, in Mather, “Essay,” in BA, 10:804; Böhme, Praefatio, in Francke, Manuductio, unpaginated.

  15. 15.

    See for example his glosses on Gen 4:12, in BA, 1:515; Prov 7:1, in BA, 5:179−81; Prov 25:11, in BA, 5:305; front matter to Canticles, in BA, 5:466−67; Matt 6:13, in BA, vol. 7 (forthcoming); Acts 10:34, in BA, vol. 8 (forthcoming).

  16. 16.

    BA 10:806. Christopher Besoldus, Axiomata Philosophiae Christianae (2 vols., Strasbourg, [1616] 1626−28).

  17. 17.

    Translated from Latin in BA, 10:807, quoting Besold, Axiomata, 1:108−109.

  18. 18.

    Translated from Latin in BA, 10:807, quoting Besold, Axiomata, 1:114. Though not included by Mather, Besold originally wrote “(die wahre Gelassenheit [the true serenity])” after the first sentence in the quotation—a phrase often affiliated with the ideas of Quietism used by many German mystics as well as Pietists to signify a state of mystical tranquility. See Ward, Early Evangelicalism, 41.

  19. 19.

    BA, 10:809. Mather referred to the Contemplationes Idiotae de amore diuino… (Paris, 1519), which was later attributed to the fourteenth-century writer Raymundus Jordanus.

  20. 20.

    Translated from Latin in BA, 10:809–10, quoting Contemplationes Idiotae, cap. 29, p. 30.

  21. 21.

    BA, 10:799.

  22. 22.

    There were notable exceptions of course, such as his use of African early church fathers and educated females, as exemplified in his gloss on John 9:6 where he quoted Anna Maria van Schurman (1607−1678), a Dutch writer who promoted the education of women. She was also a mystic who embraced the esoteric teachings of Jean de Labadie (1610−1674).

  23. 23.

    BA, 10:799, 803, 809.

  24. 24.

    For such examples, see Mather’s glosses on BA, 2:162, 2:879, 2:1013, 2:1030, 2:1107; BA 3:327, 3:422, 3:753; BA, 4:440; BA, 5:140, 5:179, 5:206, 5:340; Matthew 19:17, Luke 11:52 (in forthcoming BA 7); John 15:23, John 21:15, Acts 10:34 (in forthcoming BA vol. 8); Heb. 11:15, Rev. 11:13, in BA, 10:283, 578, and more.

  25. 25.

    Sheehan, “Enlightenment, Religion, and the Enigma of Secularization,” 1076.

  26. 26.

    For more on Mather’s Q & A methods, see Smolinski, “Editor’s Introduction,” BA, 1:62−64; Minkema, “Editor’s Introduction,” BA, 3:7−8.

  27. 27.

    BA, 2:1234.

  28. 28.

    BA, 2:1234−35. Mather drew these quotes, interestingly, from the Arminian and Latitudinarian Bishop of Ely, Simon Patrick (1626−1707), A Commentary Upon the Fifth Book of Moses (London, 1700), 611−12.

  29. 29.

    “Deum habere et agnoscere præsentissimum, eumque imitare, et cum eo familiariter, iubiné et Sancte versari.” BA, 1:536. See Samuel Mather, Figures or Types of the Old Testament, 67−68.

  30. 30.

    BA, Matthew 6:13. Mather paraphrased Böhme in Latin, “Ubi Tu es, ibi etiam sanctorum cælum est. Fac ut cælum tuum sit in Nobis.” From Böhme, Enchiridion Precum, 255−56. In October 1716, Mather wrote in his Diary that he was reading this work devotionally, which may give a clue as to when he wrote these thoughts. Mather, Diary, 2:376.

  31. 31.

    Frei, Eclipse, 152−54. For Mather’s participation in the turn to a more “representational-factualist model of biblical realism,” see Stievermann, Prophecy, Piety, and the Problem of Historicity, 5−8, 45−51, 149−92. Bruce Hindmarsh challenges Frei and sees more continuity between early evangelical exegesis and precritical devotional traditions. See Hindmarsh, “Early Evangelical Bible Reading,” 32−54; and Hindmarsh, “Devotional Intent,” 223−41.

  32. 32.

    For a similar trajectory, see Gribben, “Owen and Early Evangelical ‘Biblicism,’” 73−90.

  33. 33.

    See Noll, In the Beginning Was the Word, 177−205; Winiarski, Darkness Falls on the Land of Light, 207−84.

  34. 34.

    BA, 4:399. Mather drew this from a work titled The Christian Warfare (London, 1680), written under the pseudonym of Theophilus.

  35. 35.

    See Stievermann, “Editor’s Introduction,” in BA, 5:20−23; Stievermann, Prophecy, Piety, and the Problem of Historicity, 122−24.

  36. 36.

    BA, 5:466−67. See Theodoret of Cyrus, Explanatio in Canticum Canticorum, Praefatio, in Patrologiae Cursus Completus. Series Graeca [PG], ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857–1866), 81:29–34. The quote from Lange was in Latin, “In Cantico, impuris Mentibus clauso, sanctas ac æternæ Sophiæ nuptas Mentes describit, earumque secreta et suavissima cum Deo Commercia, pandit.” Lange, Medicina Mentis, 75. Other early church fathers that Mather commonly cited and/or referenced in his “Biblia” include, among others, Augustine, Ambrose, Jerome, Tertullian, Origen, Justin Martyr, Basil, John Cassian, Irenaeus, Hilary of Poitiers, Clement, Gregory the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, Eusebius, Cyprian, Athanasius, and Cyril of Alexandria. He also cited medieval mystics such as Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas a Kempis. Mather often quoted these sources secondhand from other commentaries, especially from the major anthologies of biblical interpretation such as Matthew Poole’s Synopsis criticorum aliorumque Sacræ Scripturæ interpretum et commentatorum, 5 vols. (London, 1669–1676; Frankfurt a. M, 1678–1679); and John Pearson’s Critici Sacri, sive, Doctissimorum virorum in SS. Biblia annotationes & tractatus, 9 vols. (London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1698).

  37. 37.

    BA, 5:854−55. Mather drew these insights secondhand from John Gregory, Notes and Observations upon severall Passages in Scripture, in The Works of the Reverend and Learned Mr. John Gregory … (London, 1665), 120–24.

  38. 38.

    Mather, “Biblia Americana,” Luke 11:52. He drew from Campegius Vitringa, Observationem Sacrarum Libri Duo… (Franeker, 1689), cap. X, 114−46. For some other examples of alchemical, hermetic, and kabalistic ideas in the “Biblia,” see BA, 1:313−14, 825; 3:264; 4:339−40, 5:190−99, 241, 445, 463−65, 473, 704, 886, 911−12; 9:400, 491.

  39. 39.

    BA, 9:490−92. He drew these thoughts from a sermon by Ralph Cudworth, The Union of Christ and the Church in a Shadow (London, 1642), 3−7, 29, 33−34.

  40. 40.

    BA, 10:430.

  41. 41.

    Smolinski, “Introduction,” in Mather, Triparadisus, 60−62.

  42. 42.

    Mather, Things to be Look’d for… (Cambridge, 1691), 46.

  43. 43.

    The main works Mather used from these authors include, Joseph Mede, Clavis Apocalyptica (London, 1627), translated into English as The Key of the Revelation, searched and demonstrated (London, 1643); Thomas Goodwin, The Exposition of the Famous Divine, Thomas Goodwin, D.D., on the Book of Revelation [1639], in The Works of Thomas Goodwin, D.D., vol. 3 (London, 1681); Edwards Waple, The Book of the Revelation Paraphrased; with Annotations on Each Chapter (London, 1693), which was initially published anonymously; William Whiston, The Accomplishment of Scripture Prophecies (London, 1708); Pierre Jurieu, The Accomplishment of the Scripture Prophecies, or, The Approaching Deliverance of the Church (Amsterdam, 1686; London, 1687); and Antonius Grellotus, Prodromus In D. Joannis Apocalypsin: In quo hactenus minùs bene intellectæ explicantur, dum Opus integrum paratur (Lugduni Batavorum [Leiden], 1675).

    See also Middlekauff, The Mathers, 320−49; Stephen J. Stein, “Transatlantic Extensions: Apocalyptic in Early New England,” in The Apocalypse in English Renaissance Thought and Literature: Patterns, Antecedents and Repercussions, ed. C. A. Patrides and Joseph Wittreich (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), 266−98; Maddux, “Editor’s Introduction,” in BA, 4:51−55; Clark, “The Eschatology of Signs,” and David Komline, “The Controversy of the Present Time: Arianism, William Whiston, and the Development of Cotton Mather’s Late Eschatology,” in Mather and Biblia Americana, ed. Smolinski and Stievermann, 413−38, 439−60; Jan Stievermann, “Reading Canticles in the Tradition of New England Millennialism,” 213−38; and Stievermann, “Editor’s Introduction,” in BA, 10:143–95.

  44. 44.

    For these essays Mather principally drew from Robert Fleming, Discourses on Several Subjects: The First containing a New Account of the Rise and Fall of the Papacy… (London, 1701), 50−56; Jurieu, Accomplishment of Scripture Prophecies, passim; Goodwin, Exposition of Revelation, passim; and William Hooke, A Discourse Concerning the Witnesses (London, 1681, published posthumously), 7−19.

    In response to Jurieu’s failed predictions, Mather wrote, “Alas, more than Thrice Seven Years have Rolled away, since we made these Conjectures; but what Progress ha’s been made in the Revival of the French Witnesses, whose Three Years & an Half, I was willing to begin, from the Slaughter of their Brethren the Vaudois, by the very same Dragoons, that had murdered them! Truly, None at all. Nor has the Fate of the Vaudois also since then, been very encouraging to our Conjectures. Tis true: Almost all Europe ha’s been ever since in an Earthquake, (except one or two short Intervals made by the Infamous Peace of Reswych, and the more Infamous one of Utrecht, which left the Witnesses Dead still, between the Shocks:) and how it will terminate, we do not yett understand.” In the first sentence of this paragraph, Mather crossed out “Twice” and replaced it with “Thrice,” showing he revisited this essay multiple times. BA, 10:562. It is important to note however that Mather did not always cancel out or revise apocalyptic interpretations in the “Biblia” that he later repudiated, hence we must interpret them largely in light of his final word on the matter before his death, his “Triparadisus.” One notable exception is Mather’s long entry in Rev. 22 in the “Biblia,” where he crosses out and revises a great deal of content to accent his new views, particularly on the universal conflagration.

  45. 45.

    Mather, Diary, 2:733. See Smolinski, “Introduction,” in Mather, Triparadisus, 32−33; Smolinski, “Editor’s Introduction,” BA, 1:58−59.

  46. 46.

    Mather, Triparadisus, 162.

  47. 47.

    See J. Ramsey Michaels, “Introduction,” in [John Lacy], The Spirit of Prophecy Defended, ed. J. Ramsey Michaels (Leiden: Brill, 2003), xxv; Lionel Laborie, Enlightened Enthusiasm: Prophecy and Religious Experience in Early Eighteenth Century England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015), 230.

  48. 48.

    Randall, From a Far Country, Chap. 6.

  49. 49.

    Silverman, Selected Letters, 270−71.

  50. 50.

    BA, 10:818, 822−26. John Lacy, The General Delusion of Christians, touching the Ways of God’s revealing Himself, to, and by the Prophets (London, 1713), 37, 48, 59−60, 75.

  51. 51.

    BA, 10:847. Mather quotes Anton Wilhelm Böhme, The Character of Love (London: J. Downing, 1713), 30; August Hermann Francke, Programma De Donis Dei Extraordinariis (programma IX), in Programmata diversis temporibus in Academia Hallensi publice proposita (Halle, 1714), 208. He quotes Francke to drive a similar point in India Christiana, 73.

  52. 52.

    BA, 10:848−49.

  53. 53.

    One possible exception to this would be Mather’s ambiguous endorsement of the contemporary use of spiritual gifts on the mission field (a subject also treated by Lacy in his General Delusion). In his 1717 letter to the Pietist missionary Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, Mather evinced the same caution mixed with optimism regarding the restoration of the spiritual gifts. Nonetheless, he urged Ziegenbalg to strive for such gifts in case the Spirit might grant them to enhance his missionary work: “But if by the Extraordinary Prayer with Fasting that shall be Necessary, and beseeching the Lord Thrice, and oftener, you shall ask of it of the Lord, Behold, You may be sensible of His Holy Spirits descending on you, who perhaps will supply you with such Gifts and Helps, as were conferred of old, and are to be Renewed in the Age that is coming on, and will procure for you an easy and speedy Progress in the work before you.” Mather, India Christiana, 73.

    As Jan Stievermann has observed, the Tranquebar missionaries must have expressed their confusion to Halle about the ecstatic millenarianism of Mather’s letter. Christian Benedict Michaelis (an associate of Francke), responded and counseled the missionaries to take Mather’s embrace of the “extraordinary gifts of the Spirit” (“Extraordinariis Spiritus Prophetici donis”) with “a grain of salt” (“cum grano salis”), and cautiously affirmed the possibility of miraculous occurrences in the final days. Archiv des Evangelisch-Lutherischen Missionswerkes/DHM 4/5b:13; draft version of the letter at Archiv der Franckeschen Stiftung, M 1 C 12:29. The same sentiment comes through in Johann Ernst Gründler’s response to Mather’s letter in 1719, which Mather translated and printed at the end of his India Christiana, 75−87. For more on these exchanges, see Stievermann, “Syncretism of Piety.”

  54. 54.

    BA, 10:850.

  55. 55.

    See Holland, Sacred Borders, Chaps. 2 and 3.

  56. 56.

    BA, 4:184, 190, 296−322, quotes from pp. 296 and 303. George Hutcheson, An Exposition on the Book of Job: Being the Sum of CCCXVI Lectures, Preached in the City of Edinburgh (London, 1669), quote from p. 91. The sections on “Hutchesonian Hints” are at the conclusion to all the books of the Minor Prophets in the “Biblia,” taken from George Hutcheson, A Brief Exposition on the XII Small Prophets, 2nd ed. (London, 1657).

  57. 57.

    Middlekauff, The Mathers, 208.

  58. 58.

    Mather, “Biblia Americana,” Matthew 5:9−10.

  59. 59.

    BA, 4:743; Diary, 1:425−26.

  60. 60.

    BA, 5:530−31. This quote comes from Mather’s second round of commentary notes on Canticles, where he followed a more explicitly Christocentric and covenantalist interpretation based on Johannes Cocceius, Cogitationes de Cantico Canticorum (Leiden, 1665), in Opera omnia, vol. 2, Commentarius in librum Ijobi, Psalmos, Proverbia, Ecclesiasten et Canticum Canticorum, third edition (Amsterdam, 1701).

  61. 61.

    Hindmarsh, “Devotional Intent,” 223−41.

  62. 62.

    BA, 4:782−83; Isaac Watts, “The Universal Hallelujah, Or, Psalm 148. Paraphras’d.,” in Horæ lyricæ: Poems, chiefly of the lyric kind. In three books. … By I. Watts [1706], second edition (London: J. Humfreys, 1709), 32−34. Mather corresponded with Watts on multiple occasions, and in the 1720s he defended the use of hymns in congregational worship against critics who argued for exclusive Psalmody. In 1711, Watts sent Mather the expanded 1709 version of his Hymns and Spiritual Songs (see Mather, Diary, 2:142), and Mather owned Watts’ collection of lyrical poems, the Horae Lyricae (1706). Mather likely used the second edition (or later) for this “Biblia” entry since he quoted an updated version with slightly different lyrics than the first edition. See Christopher N. Phillips, “Cotton Mather Brings Isaac Watts’s Hymns to America: Or, How to Perform a Hymn Without Singing It,” New England Quarterly 85.2 (June 2012): 203–21.

  63. 63.

    BA, 5:454−55. Watts, Horae Lyricae, 43−45.

  64. 64.

    For a collection of Mather’s poems, see Denise F. Knight, ed., Cotton Mather’s Verse in English (Newark, NJ: University of Delaware Press, 1989). While this collection does not include his poetry from the “Biblia,” some of the poems are directly based on certain Bible passages and most contain several biblical allusions and ideas. For more on poetry and evangelical piety, see Wendy Raphael Roberts, Awakening Verse: The Poetics of Early American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020).

  65. 65.

    Mather, Manuductio ad Ministerium, 39, 42.

  66. 66.

    BA, 10:492–93.

  67. 67.

    BA, 10:493–94.

  68. 68.

    For more on the relationship between Mather’s historical and spiritual exegesis, see Minkema, “Mather, Edwards, and Historical and Spiritual Exegesis,” 182−99.

  69. 69.

    Stievermann, Prophecy, Piety, and the Problem of Historicity, 397−411.

  70. 70.

    See Stievermann, “Editor’s Introduction,” BA, 5:13−16.

  71. 71.

    Sheehan, Enlightenment Bible, 59−67, 93−117.

  72. 72.

    Mather, BA 1:285−86; William Whiston, A Short View of the Chronology of the Old Testament, and of the Harmony of the Four Evangelists (Cambridge, 1702), 73−74. See also Lee, Erosion, 46−47.

  73. 73.

    Mather, BA, 2:1107; Robert Gell, An Essay Toward the Amendment of the Last English-Translation of the Bible (London: R. Norton, 1659), 701−703. For further examples of Mather’s use of Gell, see Mather, BA, 1:666, 671−72, 942, 1053−54, 1080−81; 2:140, 180, 194−95, 274, 431, 885, 913, 1007−1009, 1048, 1070, 1160, 1177; 3:355; 4:292, 419−20, 448, 502, 553, 572, 668; 5:257, 278, 852; Deut. 6:6, 27:25, Luke 10:31.

  74. 74.

    Mather, “Biblia,” Luke 10:31; Gell, Essay, 337.

  75. 75.

    Mather, BA, 2:996–1001. It could be Mather drew selectively from various sources for this entry, but the content primarily seems to be original to him, as they reflect his spiritualizing wordplays in other places, such as his diary entry from February 1683/84, Mather, Diary, 1:82−83.

  76. 76.

    Mather, BA, 3:422−35, quotes from 422, 435, 425−26, 428, 429; John Bunyan, Solomon’s Temple spiritualiz’d (London, 1688).

  77. 77.

    Aside from Mather’s appended “Essay, for a Further COMMENTARY, on the Sacred Scriptures,” he cited German Pietists throughout his “Biblia” for experimental readings, especially Johann Arndt, Anton Wilhelm Böhme, August Hermann Francke, and Joachim Lange. For references to Arndt, see Mather, BA, 1:322, 515; 3:439, 753; 2:1030; 4:469−70; 5:456, 469; 9:331; Hag 2:6−8; Matt 6:13, 19:17; Luke 9:58, 18:8; John 8:44; Acts 1:1. For Böhme: BA, 1:420, 5:480; 9:91, 164, 293, 566−67; Matt 6:13, John 21:15. For Francke: BA, 1:666, 691; 4:444; 5:179−81: 9:470, 523; Matt 17:21, Acts 10:34. And for Lange, BA 1:477−78, 492−93, 536, 672; 3:806; 5:139, 466, 576.

  78. 78.

    Mather, BA, 1:515, 322, 663−64, 515.

  79. 79.

    Mather, BA, 1:514−15. Mather quoted in Latin from Arndt, De Vero Christianismo (London, 1708), 1:32.

  80. 80.

    Mather, BA, 3:753; Arndt, De Vero Christianismo, 2:243.

  81. 81.

    Mather, BA, 4:469−70. Mather here drew from the English edition translated and edited by Anton Wilhelm Böhme for this quote, Johann Arndt, Of True Christianity (London, 1712−14), 1:514−15.

  82. 82.

    Mather, “Biblia Americana,” Luke 9:58. Arndt, Verus Christianismus, 1:433.

  83. 83.

    Mather, BA, 3:392−93; Henry Maundrell, A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter A. D. 1697 (Oxford, 1703), 89.

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Hoselton, R.P. (2023). “Evangelical Illustrations”: Mather’s Experimental Exegesis. In: Cotton Mather, Jonathan Edwards, and the Quest for Evangelical Enlightenment. Christianities in the Trans-Atlantic World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-44935-2_4

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