1 Introduction

South Africa is facing its biggest crisis ever in relation to youth unemployment. Under the expanded definition of total national unemployment, which includes discouraged job seekers, the rate rose to a record of 43.2% in the first quarter of 2021 from 42.6% in the previous quarter. Underscoring the gravity of the situation, the youth’s jobless rate based on the expanded definition now stands at 74.7%, which means that only one in four school leavers who are 24 or younger have a job in South Africa. This should urgently be addressed as a matter of national priority and is a national crisis.Footnote 1 A link between youth unemployment and low economic development is evident in South Africa, and the low economic growth influences the total labour market. It is important to examine the effects that unemployment has on youth development because unemployed youths are unable to gain valuable entrepreneurial skills.

Entrepreneurship is often seen as a strategy to improve youth unemployment, but by no means can it be seen as a save-it-all strategy for national social-economic development. Attempting to investigate possible support strategies for youth entrepreneurs, the SHAPE ecosystem for youth entrepreneurs was first theoretically created and then practically applied over time. The key barriers and enablers to youth entrepreneurship were identified as perceived by youths in relation to the ecosystem and results are presented in part two of the book. Youth unemployment and mitigating barriers to youth entrepreneurship are everybody’s business, and all systems are held responsible for overcoming this crisis collectively. Failure to do so will result in a national socio-economic collapse.

2 Systems and Ecosystems

The world around us consists of integrated and interrelated systems, and these systems are facing severe challenges in all aspects.Footnote 2 The decay in systems in the different environments around us is the cause of collective deconstructive actions of people, and only a transformation of collective consciousness towards sustainable and responsible systemic development practices will bring forward possible solutions to turn around the decay within our systems.Footnote 3 The need for not only change but the deep systemic transformation has come to a boiling point where global governing practices such as the United Nations are reviewing sustainability approaches. Systemic transformation needs enablers of transformation which brings forward the desired change.Footnote 4 A system can be described as a complex whole whose functioning depends on its parts and the interactions between those parts,Footnote 5 where systemic elements affecting the whole, rather than just parts of it, refers to the interrelatedness and integrativeness of systems.Footnote 6

Systems are distinguished on four different levels: mundo-level, macrolevel, meso-level, and micro-level systems.Footnote 7 The mundo‑system refers to global governance, the macrosystem refers to national governance or institutionalising, the mesosystem refers to organisations and culture, and the microsystem refers to individuals and their thinking.Footnote 8 From a multi-level systemic perspective, the global society in relation to the global economy is described as the mundo-system, society at large as the macrosystem, organisational structure, culture and climate as the mesosystem, and the personal characteristics and traits of an individual as the microsystem.Footnote 9

Characteristics of systems and their components and determinants includeFootnote 10:

  • A system has processes and certain outputs since a system is something.

  • When components are added or removed from a system, these actions change the system.

  • When any component is added to a system, it is affected by being included in the system.

  • When components are added to a system, it is perceived that related hierarchical structures are formed.

  • The survival of a system requires certain forms of control and communication that support system survival.

  • Some of the system’s properties are emergent and not easy to predict.

  • The system has a boundary.

  • The external environment to the boundary of the system affects the system.

Systems can further be distinguished between physical or natural structures as hard systems and people, organisations, and their culture as soft systems.Footnote 11 Hard systems operate in a process that goes from extraction to production, distribution, consumption, and ultimately disposal—otherwise referred to as the materials economy.Footnote 12 The materials economy system is in crisis because it is confined to a linear sequence of hard systems which minimally incorporate soft-system approaches.Footnote 13 On this topic, twenty-first-century scholars concur that systems at all levels are in a crisis.Footnote 14 It is important to highlight the need for collective change within systems because the impact of irresponsible and unsustainable leadership practices results in the decay of all systemic environments, whether it is a political, economic, or ecological environment. These systemic challenges are evident in both developed and developing countries.

Soft-system development scholars propose an anthropomorphic descriptive terminology of the system. They suggest, for example, that integrative systems cannot ‘breathe’ without one another or that systems are ‘living’, ‘dying’, and being ‘reborn’.Footnote 15 Viewing systems as anthropomorphic ties in with the term ‘ecosystem’. An ecosystem, derived from the Greek oikos (house or habitation) and systema (organised whole) is derived from biology, denoting the complexity of the relationship of living things to their environment. An ecosystem describes how various organisms live closely together, their mode of interaction with each other, and how they depend on each other for existence and survival. Ecosystems are complex, supporting elements that are both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living). The biotic are divided based on their type of nutrition: some of them are producers, and others are consumers.Footnote 16

Similarly, youth entrepreneurs function in an ecosystem and they need a systemic support network to exist—and vice versa—because of the co-dependency of systems.

2.1 Systems in Crisis

Globally, social systems are in a crisis and dying. In the same process, something else is being reborn. Death and rebirth of systems, specifically ecosystems, are associated with disruption and change, which can be a painful process for individuals. Hard systems on the planet that are dying include its ecology and the functioning of the materials economy as we know it, and on a soft systemic level traditional leadership and policy approaches are changing beyond recognition. In reflecting on systems and their disconnect, there are three basic feelings shared by many people in the worldFootnote 17:

  • We live in a world in which we hit the wall with larger systems. Our civilisation is in the process of dying. And that is happening right now, visible among other things in the disruptions around us and between us.

  • I want to be part of another story of the future that I want to help create through my life and work; and

  • I do not know.

In the rebirth of socio-economic development, the microsystem takes priority, with the values, heartset and mindset of the individual shaping the integrative actions of the system as a whole. The ‘spinners’ of systemic development going forward are individual values, vision, and levels of self-confidence.Footnote 18 These aspects are essential for the sustainability of national wealth creation of the flow of goods and services. Wealth creation is complex and abstract and not synonymous with the accumulation of vast amounts of money.Footnote 19

3 Youth Entrepreneurship

A world without entrepreneurs would be a world without newness and uncertainty.Footnote 20 The youth entrepreneur then evolves as someone searching for profit and initiating new combinations and innovating products, processes, sources of supply, selling markets, and organisational forms.

Youth entrepreneurship refers to practical elements of personality in enterprising activity such as taking the initiative, innovation, creativity, and risk-taking in the working environment (either in self-employment or employment in small start-up firms) and using skills necessary for success in that environment.Footnote 21 Entrepreneurship is a social function whose ultimate objective is value creation through the recognition of enabling factors. This involves four processes: innovation and creativity, enabling creation, creating a market, and creating an identity formation.Footnote 22 Youth entrepreneurship is not an isolated concept. It takes place within a nondual social-economic environment comprised of people who are entrepreneurs, employees, and customers of businesses. For this book, youth entrepreneurship is taken as those entrepreneurial activities being undertaken by youths in the process of applying enterprising qualities, including the individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) factors of taking risks and being innovative and proactive. In addition, youth entrepreneurship signifies the process of creating and launching a new business.Footnote 23

The entrepreneurial journey’s premise is said to be that of ‘new’ value creation in which new identities, new ideas, new products and services, new companies, and new entrepreneurs are collectively co-created by the entrepreneur and their interaction with society.Footnote 24 Youth entrepreneurship education is an initiative to encourage and support youths in becoming more entrepreneurial and facilitate interactions with society. These initiatives can be academic or non-academic with a common denominator to enrich the entrepreneurial experiences of youths with the aim to potentially facilitate entrepreneurial action (EA). The term applies to both structured and unstructured events aimed at promoting business-mindedness among the youth.

The activity of youth entrepreneurship in the informal economy is difficult to determine. However, the Quarterly Labour Force Survey released by Statistics South Africa shows that approximately 2.9 million people were actively involved in the informal economy in the first quarter of 2020.Footnote 25 With youth unemployment peaking in formal economic activities, it is essential for policymakers and academics—in particular—to review the current relevance of entrepreneurship strategies to enable sustainable and effective youth entrepreneurship. Equally important for youths is to recognise available national strategies and enabling initiatives that can support them in co-initiating an entrepreneurial ecosystem. Key success factors for an effective youth entrepreneur ecosystem strategy include recognising and bridging systemic disconnect, emphasising microsystemic transformation, innovation strategy formulation for economic development, and social growth in an environment of sharply competitive globalisation.Footnote 26

The popularity of youth entrepreneurship has been attributed to its positive influence on wealth and job creation,Footnote 27 with particular importance of entrepreneurship as a self-employment option for present-day graduates who can no longer count on the security of wage employment after completing their studies.Footnote 28 In a similar vein, youth entrepreneurship can be seen as a tool that minimises unemployment levels and is a source of sustainable economic development.Footnote 29 However, there are key barriers within the youth entrepreneur ecosystem that need to be addressed to increase efficiency, success rates, and, most importantly, sustainability.

The demographic significance of youth entrepreneurship in South Africa needs to be considered. Highly successful and efficient youth entrepreneurship is related to value creation in a location-specific context. In addition, youth entrepreneurship in South Africa is impaired by factors such as bureaucratic obstacles to accessing finance, a shortage of specialised skills, and a general lack of innovation.Footnote 30 Young South Africans are nonetheless positively disposed towards entrepreneurship.Footnote 31 The driver for young people venturing into business is increasingly considered as being a wish to pursue perceived opportunities rather than merely from basic necessity (Fig. 1.1).Footnote 32

Fig. 1.1
A schematic depicts the Triple H factors of self-entrepreneurship. It includes an Entrepreneurial Heartset, Entrepreneurial Mindset, and Entrepreneurial Handset.

The Triple H of entrepreneurship

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To acquire entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) in meeting business challenges and succeed in business communication and interpersonal negotiations: youths will need to develop a sense of self-responsibility over their own lives and a resilient desire and capacity to influence the world around them; consciously helping to shape a new world and participate in it; actively making a difference to improve the crisis various systems are in.Footnote 33 Another factor consistently identified as important in youth entrepreneurship promotion in South Africa is the level of education and grades achieved at school.Footnote 34 Entrepreneurship education is fundamental to youth entrepreneurial development. Figure 1.2 shows the youth entrepreneur development process.

Fig. 1.2
A schematic diagram depicts the factors of the self-innovation, self-management, and self-leadership phases of the youth entrepreneur development process. It includes the ecosystem, enablers, business friendships, barriers, and the socio-economic involvements.

(Source Van der Westhuizen, 2022)

The Youth entrepreneur development process

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As the diagram shows, youth entrepreneurship is the total of psychological, social, commercial, and economic interactions. The entrepreneurial process can be decomposed into three major phases: self-innovation, self-management, and self-leadership.Footnote 35 It is evident that self-development for youth entrepreneurs is embedded in actions of co-inspiring and feedback from their ecosystem: Thus, connecting a support system with each other and engaging with feedback through dyadic conversations where discussions and feedback-looping are essential.

The entrepreneurial heartset, mindset, and handset of youths is fundamental to their entrepreneurial journey and is described in more detail in Chapter 2. In the self-innovation phase, youths will need to break down their old mental models and start looking at the world with fresh eyes—growing in developmental maturity and transforming the ‘Self’. In the self-management phase, youths are taking EA and co-initiating, co-sensing and co-inspiring with role players in their ecosystem to establish business friendships and explore how value creation can occur through collaborative efforts. In the self-leadership phase, youths take an instrumental role in bringing change to their socio-economic environment, contributing to market-creation and inspiring customer solutions for collective socio- economic development.

4 Shifting Hope Activating Potential Youth Entrepreneurship SHAPE

SHAPE, an acronym for Shifting Hope Activating Potential Entrepreneurship, is an academic concept designed to foster entrepreneurship within South African Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and beyond. The concept recognises the importance of shifting heartsets and mindsets, instilling hope, and activating the potential of individuals towards entrepreneurial endeavors. SHAPE emphasises the need to create a multi-disciplinary enabling environment that encourages and supports entrepreneurial feeling, thinking, learning, and action. Through targeted interventions, such as curriculum development, experiential learning opportunities, mentorship programmes, action research, and access to resources, SHAPE aims to equip students with the necessary confidence, skills, and knowledge to embark on entrepreneurial ventures. By incorporating SHAPE into HEIs, South Africa can harness the transformative power of entrepreneurship, driving economic growth, job creation, and societal development.

SHAPE was created initially as a theoretical framework and then validated by creating the proposed youth entrepreneurial ecosystem. The practical application of the strategy’s sustainability was further validated through a series of assessments. The ‘SHAPE’ strategy refers to processes on the journey to developing the entrepreneurial heartset, mindset, and handset of an individual. This process occurs through moving from reactive response fields to generative response fields, where ideation of entrepreneurial possibilities can be brought into action.

The proposed strategy aims to assist youths in transforming (growing in developmental maturity) personality traits by focusing on ESE, IEO, entrepreneurial intent (EI), and EA. Self-development occurs within a support network, also referred to as the youth entrepreneurial ecosystem. Facilitation of the youth entrepreneurial ecosystem is initially co-initiated by educational institutes, where functions shift as the youth entrepreneurial system develops towards self-sustainability.

As SALAR, the SHAPE strategy consists of three cycles, executed through eleven phases to bring about the desired entrepreneurial change and empirically measure development over time. As a theoretical framework, SHAPE can assist in boosting youth entrepreneurship through starting, inspiring and developing the entrepreneurial heartset, mindset, and handset of youth entrepreneurs. SHAPE is designed to connect youths with a support network and leadership (ecosystemic connection) to inspire them to become successful entrepreneurs.Footnote 36 These successful youth entrepreneurs are described as individuals who are consistently motivated to achieve financial sustainability and feel confident in overcoming challenges by being proactive. The continuum of high youth unemployment in South Africa forces many youths to find a way to survive, therefore becoming grassroots entrepreneurs. Youths are limited by their perceptual framework, value system, culture, and work experiences.Footnote 37 Thus, youths’ culture, family, role models, education, and work experience affect their growth and survival.Footnote 38 Youths pursue entrepreneurship because they perceive it to offer flexibility in an improved work-life balance, but they often do not understand what it takes to become a successful entrepreneur. Connecting to a support network in the youth entrepreneur ecosystem might assist the youth entrepreneurs to take EA and, more importantly, to sustain their entrepreneurial efforts.

5 SHAPE Ecosystem Strategy for Youth Entrepreneurs

The SHAPE ecosystem strategy for youth entrepreneurs identifies internal and external domains for youth entrepreneur support. These domains consist of seven categories that form a support network—ecosystem—needed by youths. The youth entrepreneurial ecosystem may help youths propel their nascent business idea into a reality through a journey en route to EA. The young entrepreneur’s ecosystem is therefore the same as their youth entrepreneur support network.

The SHAPE YES Network, an acronym for the SHAPE Youth Entrepreneurship Support Network, is an academic concept that represents an entrepreneurial ecosystem tailored for young entrepreneurs. This network holds immense potential for implementation in South African Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) and beyond. It encompasses multiple domains, starting with the youth's internal domain, which encompasses their personality traits and characteristics. This internal domain interacts with several external domains to create a comprehensive support network for youth entrepreneurs.

The external domains of the SHAPE YES Network include the Higher Education Institute (HEI), which serves as the project host and provides leadership, facilitation, administrative support, and monitoring for the support network. Government agencies play a crucial role by offering a business support unit, integrating entrepreneurial strategies at the municipal level, and providing mentorship and support programmes for youth entrepreneurs. Private sector agencies, such as local chambers of commerce and other organisations, contribute by offering platforms and mentorship opportunities to young entrepreneurs.

Communities, including local communities, families, and friends, form an essential part of the support network, providing encouragement and support to youth entrepreneurs. Additionally, the SHAPE YES Network incorporates collaboration with entrepreneurs and small to medium-sized businesses, establishing an ecosystem of support and knowledge exchange. Lastly, corporations and large businesses offer internships and on-the-job learning opportunities, creating platforms for practical experience and skill development.

By integrating the SHAPE YES Network into HEIs and beyond, South Africa can cultivate a robust environment for young entrepreneurs. This comprehensive ecosystem enables youth, leverages external support systems, and facilitates collaboration across various domains, fostering entrepreneurship, economic growth, and innovation. Figure 1.3 illustrates these eight aspects, which are discussed throughout the book.

Fig. 1.3
A SHAPE YES logo illustrates eight aspects as follows. 1. Personality traits. 2. Educational institutions. 3. Government agencies. 4. Private sector agencies. 5. Communities. 6. Entrepreneur and S M business. 7. Corporations and large businesses. 8. Internationalisation.

The SHAPE YES network for youth entrepreneurs (expanded)

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6 Typologies of Youth Entrepreneurs in South Africa

There are at least seven types of definitions of ‘youth entrepreneurs’ and ‘youth entrepreneurship’ that have been found in literatureFootnote 39:

  1. 1.

    Who the youth entrepreneur is (focusing on the entrepreneur as a particular type of person or the entrepreneur as the product of a particular type of environment).

  2. 2.

    What the youth entrepreneur does (focusing on the entrepreneur as performing a particular role in society).

  3. 3.

    The youth entrepreneur is a type of business owner.

  4. 4.

    The process that the youth entrepreneur experiences, entrepreneurial events, and entrepreneurial input into the economy.

  5. 5.

    The youth entrepreneur as an innovator, an actor in the creation of future goods and services.Footnote 40

  6. 6.

    Definitions focusing on the fact that youth entrepreneurs own small businesses.

  7. 7.

    Archetypal definitions classify different types of youth entrepreneurs into broad categories.

It seems that these definitions have all been operationalised for different purposes and thus serve different purposes in the literature.

There are multiple definitions of the term ‘youth entrepreneur’, and an applicable description within the context of this book is that they are rogues who actualise a market potential. This is consistent with the early nineteenth-century coining of the term ‘entrepreneurship’ as the process of shifting economic resources from an area of low productivity into situations that have higher yields.Footnote 41 Also popular is the definition of radical 1980s scholars, which is that youth entrepreneurs take advantage of opportunities without regard for the resources they currently control.Footnote 42

The traditional nomenclature of youth entrepreneurial activities revolves around two forms of youth entrepreneurship: necessity (survivalist) and opportunity-driven youth entrepreneurship. These are generally distinguished as follows: Youths who are initially unemployed before starting businesses are defined as ‘necessity’ youth entrepreneurs and youths who are not unemployed (e.g., wage/salary workers, enrolled in school or college, or are not actively seeking a job) before starting businesses as ‘opportunity’ youth entrepreneurs.Footnote 43

While the foregoing is taken in the literature as a widely accepted practice, this book adopts a different and more comprehensive approach to classifying entrepreneurial activities. In considering the development of youth entrepreneurs: it is often assumed that entrepreneurship is competence and that when entrepreneurs start, they are incompetent. Literature has failed to answer why some people are better at starting businesses than others, as the construct for the definition of entrepreneurship has not been focused on a market-based view of entrepreneurial activity.

The definition above describes the entrepreneur as an essential mechanism for translating the demand of customers into supply.Footnote 44 It also differentiates the entrepreneur from the business owner, as an entrepreneur develops a sustainable business.

More work needs to be done to create a complete ontology of entrepreneurs.Footnote 45 Table 1.1 combines the work of various authors in an attempt at a description of various types of entrepreneurs as observed in the literature. There are many different descriptions of what we call entrepreneurs today.Footnote 46

Table 1.1 The SHAPE typology of entrepreneursFootnote

Steenberg (2017).

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7 Entrepreneurship Frameworks and Models

There is a myriad of approaches to entrepreneurship in general. Broadly attempting to understand youth entrepreneurship better, the figure below illustrates general entrepreneurship frameworks and key theories (Fig. 1.4):

Fig. 1.4
A block illustration of general entrepreneurship lists three major aspects along with their respective theories and the names of the authors as follows. 1. Nature of opportunities. 2. Nature of entrepreneurs. 3. Nature of decision making.

(Source Van der Westhuizen, 2022)

Entrepreneurship frameworks and key theories

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Entrepreneurship is also broadly classified as process-based, events-based, strengths-based, market-based, and functional skills-based models, as shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5
A model framework lists 5 categories of entrepreneurship as follows. Entrepreneurship is a process, events define entrepreneurs, markets define entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship is a set of functional skills, and entrepreneurship depends on strengths.

(Source Steenberg, 2022)

Models of entrepreneurship

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At a broad level, entrepreneurship scholarship is a process undertaken by many authors, and it shows potential in terms of finding a valid approach to entrepreneurship education.Footnote 48

8 Youth Entrepreneurship: Enablers and Barriers

Enablers can be defined as a person, thing, or phenomenon that makes, or helps make, something possible. Barriers are obstacles that block the processes of youths’ EA. Earlier research on youth entrepreneurship education tends to argue that it is increasingly difficult to become a successful youth entrepreneur. Data from the 2019 to 2020 Global Entrepreneurship MonitorFootnote 49 show that worldwide youth entrepreneurial activity is low and shows no signs of improvement occurring currently.Footnote 50 The low level of youth entrepreneurial activity is exacerbated by inadequate support from government projects and policies, private-sector agencies, communities, and educational institutions.Footnote 51

As a consequence of these barriers, a multitude of ‘daily management challenges’ are experienced by youth entrepreneurs. Finding ways to overcome some of the identified barriers could help to alleviate the crisis of youth unemployment.Footnote 52 A revised approach to teaching entrepreneurship is required.Footnote 53 The revised approach used in SHAPE focuses on action-based learning and encourages youth entrepreneurs to practise experiential learning, problem-solving, and creativity. This provides practical experience representative of real-world scenarios. It occurs from a nondual perspective where the youth entrepreneurship ecosystem is created to effectively enabling a support network for youth entrepreneurs.Footnote 54

Youth entrepreneurs face both internal and external barriers. Internal barriers affect the entrepreneurial heartset, mindset, and handset, which is a specific state of Being that orientates human conduct towards entrepreneurial activities and outcomes. Youths with an entrepreneurial mindset are often drawn to opportunities, innovation and new value creation.Footnote 55 Elements of the entrepreneurial heartset, mindset, and handset specifically noted are ESE, IEO, EI, and EA.Footnote 56

Systemic external barriers, which youths who are in the process of becoming youth entrepreneurs encounter in generating momentum for their nascent business ideas, can be identified. These external barriers affect the entrepreneurial mindset and often give rise to further internal barriers within the entrepreneurial mind.Footnote 57

The study upon which this book is based investigates enablers and barriers that youth entrepreneurs face in South Africa in relation to the theoretical youth entrepreneurial ecosystem, as illustrated in Fig. 1.3.Footnote 58

The youth’s perceived enablers and barriers are summarised and illustrated below (Fig. 1.6):

Fig. 1.6
A chart. Some barriers are financial support, personality traits, inaccessibility to government funding, high levels of competition, creative thinking, and high crime levels. Some enablers are academic and non-academic programs, mentorship from the municipality to youths, and teamwork with a vision.

(Source Van der Westhuizen, 2022)

Top 10 barriers and enablers in the youth entrepreneurial ecosystem

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The theoretical model of the youth entrepreneur ecosystem, known as the SHAPE YES Network, highlights the significance of a robust support network for young entrepreneurs. This network encompasses educational institutions, government agencies, private-sector entities, communities, SMEs, and large businesses and corporations. These stakeholders collectively contribute to providing the necessary resources, mentorship, and opportunities to empower and enable youth in their entrepreneurial endeavours. By recognising the pivotal role of these interconnected entities, the SHAPE YES Network emphasises the importance of collaboration and integration across various sectors to create a conducive environment that facilitates the growth and success of young entrepreneurs through facilitating an increased enabling environment and overcoming perceived barriers.

9 Conclusion

Youth entrepreneur development has been identified as fundamental to any country’s long-term socio-economic development, but not a save-it-all solution to the deep socio-economic crisis global systems face. Developing the entrepreneurial heartset, mindset, and handset can lead to EA and potential value creation. To create value, youth entrepreneurs need to co-initiate and co-sense an entrepreneurial roadmap within their ecosystem and form crucial business friendships. During these processes, they will encounter barriers and enablers, but an anchored sense of Self can help youth entrepreneurs conquer barriers and optimise enabling factors. Processes of self-innovation, self-management, and self-leadership will strengthen positive personality traits to conquer the barriers encountered, especially if these barriers relate to psychological health aspects.

This chapter introduced SHAPE social technology, which was used as a strategy for the empirical research described in this book. The SHAPE support network, which illustrates a youth entrepreneur ecosystem, is used as the key model for the empirical premise of the book.

This chapter builds on the SHAPE project-supported research supported in part by the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Number: 122002-Shape). These works include: Adelakun and Van der Westhuizen (2021), Awotunde and Van der Westhuizen (2021a), Awotunde and Van der Westhuizen (2021b), IGI Global (2020), Nhleko and van der Westhuizen (2022), Ruba et al. (2021), Van der Westhuizen (2017a), Van der Westhuizen (2017b), Van der Westhuizen (2018a), Van der Westhuizen (2018b), Van der Westhuizen (2019), Van der Westhuizen (2021).