Introduction

Abstract

This chapter provides a brief overview of the history of digital 3D reconstruction. It shows in which contexts the first research projects were undertaken and how the resulting 3D models were presented to the public. It sheds light on the institutionalization of 3D reconstruction in research at universities, presentations at conferences, and specialization of architectural companies.

Guiding questions

• When were digital 3D reconstructions first created?

• What was the purpose of the earliest digital 3D reconstructions?

• Where was one of the earliest research contexts for digital 3D reconstructions?

• How did 3D reconstructions gain importance over time?

Basic terms

• History

• Presentation media

• Professionalization

1.1 A Brief History of 3D Reconstruction

3D modeling involves established methods that were used in history studies long before the advent of computer-aided visualization techniques [1]. As early as the Renaissance, scholars studied the appearance of the architecture of the past, analyzing it by means of images, and using it in their creative processes as a model for constructing their own contemporary buildings [2]. As architectural history became established as an academic discipline, reconstruction gained new importance, especially with regard to architecture that had been lost; studies were made of the appearance of the Late Antique Basilica of St. Peter in Rome, which had been demolished in 1514 [3,4,5], the early construction phases of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela [6, 7] or, as a prominent present-day example, the former Berlin Royal Palace [8, 9]. Such traditional reconstructions are prompted by questions as to their original appearance, often posed as issues in buildings archaeology, which cannot be verified through in-situ observation. They may serve—as in the case of the Berlin Royal Palace—as the basis for an actual architectural reconstruction. The advent of visualization techniques for 3D modeling was initiated primarily by 3D reconstruction in the early 1980s [10, 11], while 3D modeling via the digitization of heritage objects became mainstream in the early 2000s [12].

Digital 3D reconstructions of historical architecture are increasingly present in media contexts such as museums, documentaries, computer games, Internet platforms, and many more. The first digital 3D reconstructions of historical architecture, based on scientific principles and in the form of textured volume models, date back to the early 1980s [10, pp. 65–89]. In Great Britain, several projects were created in archaeology during this period [13, pp. 45–46]: For example, the ancient structures of the Roman temple precinct at Bath were digitally reconstructed in 1983/84 and the legionary bathhouses at Caerleon in 1985 [14]. Both projects were created by John Woodwark, who was teaching mechanical engineering at Bath University at the time, using the software DORA (Divided Object-Space Ray-Casting Algorithm). He used plans, elevations, and dimensions of individual buildings. Between 1984 and 1986, archaeologists Birthe Kjølbe-Biddle and Martin Biddle worked with the IBM UK Scientific Centre to create digital 3D reconstructions of the 7th-century Old Minster Cathedral in Winchester [15, pp. 152–154, 16]. This was based on their extensive research and excavations of the church complex, which no longer exists. The goal of all these projects was to give the public a glimpse of architecture that no longer exists today. This was done by producing images of the 3D model for a television report (Bath), a video in the information center of the historic site (Caerleon), postcards with images of the 3D models (Bath and Caerleon), and a film with exterior and interior views of the 3D reconstructed building for presentation in an exhibition of the British Museum (Old Minster in Winchester). Here, the 3D models acted as presentation media.

From about 1986 3D reconstructions began to serve as a research tool. For example, from 1986 to 1987, the mural “The School of Athens” by Raphael in the Vatican (1509–1511) was digitally reconstructed to investigate the representation of perspective [17, pp. xiii, 18]. The interdisciplinary project was carried out at the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt (today: Technische Universität Darmstadt) in computer science, mathematics, and architecture under the advice of the art historian Oskar Bätschmann.

All this work in the 1980s was made possible primarily not only by the enormous development in computer technology since the 1960s, but also by developments in video art, architecture, and film [10, pp. 53–61]. In the 1990s, numerous centers were founded at universities specializing in the 3D reconstruction of historical architecture such as CAD in der Architektur, TU Darmstadt; Visualization Team, University of Warwick; Cultural Virtual Reality Laboratory, University of California, Los Angeles [10, pp. 165–169]. Conferences to serve the exchange of experts in the field were held for the first time and some continue today [10, pp. 297–298]. These include the conference series on Computer Applications in Archaeology (today: Computer Applications & Quantitative Methods in Archaeology, also held outside Great Britain since 1992), Electronic Information, the Visual Arts and Beyond since 1994, and International Society on Virtual Systems and Multimedia since 1995. This professionalization of 3D reconstruction continued around 2000 with specialized companies such as Archimedix founded by Philipp Möckl, Marc Möller (†), and Reinhard Munzel, Architectura Virtualis founded by Marc Grellert and Manfred Koob (†)¹ or Faber Courtial,² founded by Jörg and Maria Courtial.³

At the same time, departments of different universities specialized in digital 3D reconstructions and are still working in this field today. These include the Universität Cottbus—Senftenberg, Lehrstuhl Architektur und Visualisierung, directed by Dominik Lengyel; Technische Universität Darmstadt, FG Digitales Gestalten—Forschungsbereich Digitale Rekonstruktionen, directed by Marc Grellert; the Mainz University of Applied Sciences, Applied Computer Science and Visualization in Architecture, directed by Piotr Kuroczyński; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Digital Humanities (Images/Objects), directed by Sander Münster; Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden, Computergraphik—DREMATRIX, directed by Markus Wacker; Università di Bologna, Dipartimento di Architettura, Fabrizio I. Apollonio. To this day, universities and conferences are not only essential places for the creation of digital 3D reconstructions of historical architecture, but also for discussion, interdisciplinary collaboration, and knowledge transfer [11, p. 42].

1.2 Examples of 3D Reconstruction Projects

Playing Angkor

3D models and a game engine used by Tom Chandler in his Ph.D. thesis to research and teach the daily life and practices in historic Angkor Wat [19].⁴

Modellathon 2020/2021

Student competition in the German-speaking countries to digitally 3D reconstruct the historic business premises of Carl Zeiss AG in Jena, Germany, dating from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, which only partially exist today [20].⁵

3D Reconstruction of Synagogues (1994 to 2030) destroyed by the Nazis and reconstructed under the direction of Marc Grellert is an example of a content-driven ongoing project that develops the whole range of interfaces and media used from renderings and films to virtual and augmented reality to rapid prototyping. The content of remembrance of the Shoah, showing the lost Jewish culture and challenging antisemitism, is still relevant [21].

Digital reconstruction of Piazza delle Erbe in Verona, 14th century: 3D reconstruction of the medieval market of Piazza delle Erbe in Verona. The project was curated by the University of Bologna and IULM University of Milan. It culminated in a docufilm presented at Expo 2015 titled “Piazze, palazzi del potere e mercati del cibo nell’Italia di Dante.” [22].⁶

Jena4D: This research group develops and tests workflows for the automated reconstruction of cityscapes via building geometries reconstructed in the client browser from historical cadaster plans. Those roofed building shapes are mapped with automatically located and oriented photographs. This 4D model is world-scale and enriched by links to texts and information, e.g., Wikipedia articles, and accessible as a 4D website via smartphone browsers [23].⁷

Three Points of View for the Drawing Adoration of the Magi by Leonardo da Vinci: In this project, Apollonio et al. 3D reconstructed the architectural models drawn by Leonardo da Vinci in his famous “The Adoration of the Magi” (and preparatory drawings). This reconstruction helped to visualize and prove that the artist did not follow the canonical perspective construction of the time, so the resultant 3D reconstructed models look deformed [24].

Digital reconstruction of the exposition at the Spirito Santo Church in Bologna: In this project, a multi-disciplinary team, directed by the Pinacoteca Nazionale and the University of Bologna, realized the 3D reconstruction of the exposition wanted by Canova and held in the church of the Spirito Santo in Bologna in 1817.⁸

Hypothetical Reconstruction of the Roman Theatre of Urbs Salvia: The modern city of Urbisaglia, Roman Urbs Salvia, features many traces of its ancient origins. One of the most noteworthy is the theatre, dated around 23 BCE. The article presents a new, hypothetical virtual reconstruction of the structure, based on recent research on the geometric framework used by Roman architects. The article aims to demonstrate a methodology for a monument characterized by the poor state of preservation [25].

Generative Models for Relief Perspective Architectures: The potential of generative representation is applied to the study of relief perspective architectures realized in Italy between the 16th and 17th centuries. In architecture, relief perspective is a 3D structure able to create the illusion of great depth in small spaces. The method used in the case study of the Avila Chapel in Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome (Antonio Gherardi 1678) is based on the use of a relief perspective camera, which can create both a linear perspective and a relief perspective. The authors experimented mechanically and automatically with perspective transformations from the affine space to the illusory space and vice versa to see the case study in a different light [26].

Back to the Future—Visualizing the Planning and Building of the Dresden Zwinger: This court-like building is the most famous Baroque one in the city with a diverse history and of architectural importance. It started in 1709 as an orangery laid out at the rear of the Residential Castle and was extended due to the need for representation facilities until the first half of the 19th century. An extensive project grew out of this: 14 construction and planning phases of the Dresden Zwinger were reconstructed or simulated in detail [27].⁹

Summary

This chapter provides a brief overview of the history of digital 3D reconstruction. It shows in which contexts the first research projects were undertaken and how the resulting 3D models were presented to the public. It sheds light on the institutionalization of 3D reconstruction in research at universities, presentations at conferences, and specialization of architectural companies.

Projects

• 1984–1986: 3D reconstruction of the Old Minster (erected seventh century, demolished twelfth century) in Winchester, in two videos presented in television programs, created under the direction of the software developer Andy Walter and four students in close cooperation with the archaeologists Birthe Kjølbe-Biddle and Martin Biddle [15, 16].

• 1986 to 1987: 3D reconstruction of the mural “The School of Athens” by Raphael in the Vatican (1509–1511) to investigate perspective representation, at the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt (today: Technische Universität Darmstadt) in computer science, mathematics, and architecture under the advice of the art historian Oskar Bätschmann [17, 18].

• 1989: 3D reconstruction of the Romanesque church Cluny III in Burgundy, France, by the architectural company asb baudat in Bensheim, Germany, under the direction of the architect Manfred Koob, presented as part of a TV documentary [28].

Key literature

• Messemer, H. (2020). Digitale 3D-Modelle historischer Architektur. Entwicklung, Potentiale und Analyse eines neuen Bildmediums aus kunsthistorischer Perspektive. Heidelberg, arthistoricum.net [10].

• Messemer, H. (2016). The Beginnings of Digital Visualization of Historical Architecture in the Academic Field. In: Virtual Palaces, Part II. Lost Palaces and their Afterlife. Virtual Reconstruction between Science and the Media, Hoppe, S., Breitling, S. (Eds.); pp. 21–54 [11].

• Grellert, M. (2007). Immaterielle Zeugnisse—Synagogen in Deutschland. Potentiale digitaler Technologien für das Erinnern zerstörter Architektur. Bielefeld [21].

• Kuroczyński, P.; Pfarr-Harfst, M.; Münster, S., (Eds.) Der Modelle Tugend 2.0: Digitale 3D-Rekonstruktion als virtueller Raum der architekturhistorischen Forschung. Heidelberg University Press: Heidelberg, 2019 [29].

• Münster, S. (2022) Digital 3D Technologies for Humanities Research and Education: An Overview. Applied Sciences, 12:2426 [30].

• Münster, S. (2011). Entstehungs- und Verwendungskontexte von 3D-CAD-Modellen in den Geschichtswissenschaften. In: Virtual Enterprises, Communities & Social Networks, Meissner, K., Engelien, M. (Eds.); Dresden, TUDpress; pp. 99–108 [31].