Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Building Expert Certifiers: The Rise of Psychological Physicians

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Certification of Insanity

Part of the book series: Mental Health in Historical Perspective ((MHHP))

  • 60 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter examines the connection between the legal provisions for the certification of insanity and the promotion of medical psychology as a teaching subject. It focuses on Britain between 1853 and 1890, because legal requirements during this period remained relatively unvaried, and because developments during these years set the stage for the introduction of the 1886 Certificate of Psychological Medicine. The central thesis is that the certification system enacted in 1853 served as the basis for the introduction of medical psychology as an essential subject for all medical professionals.

This chapter elaborates on some of the arguments advanced in Filippo Maria Sposini, “The Rise of Psychological Physicians: The Certification of Insanity and the Teaching of Medical Psychology”, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry (2021), 74, 101667.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Edmund Whitcombe, “Presidential Address Delivered at the Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association Held at Birmingham, July 23, 1891”, Journal of Mental Science (1891), 37: 159, 501–514, 504.

  2. 2.

    Anonymous, “Certificate of Efficiency in Psychological Medicine”, Journal of Mental Science (1887), 32: 140, 630–632.

  3. 3.

    Edmund Whitcombe, “Presidential Address”, 510.

  4. 4.

    John Sibbald, “Clinical Instruction in Insanity”, Journal of Mental Science (1871), 16: 76, 528–537, 528.

  5. 5.

    John P. Gray, “Insanity and Its Relations to Medicine”, American Journal of Insanity (1868), 25: 2, 145–172, 168.

  6. 6.

    George Weisz, “The Emergence of Medical Specialization in the Nineteenth Century”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine (2003), 77: 3, 536–575; George Weisz, Divide and Conquer: A Comparative History of Medical Specialization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).

  7. 7.

    Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

  8. 8.

    Ian Robert Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991).

  9. 9.

    Eric J. Engstrom, Clinical Psychiatry in Imperial Germany: A History of Psychiatric Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003).

  10. 10.

    Heinz-Peter Schmiedebach, “Inspecting Great Britain: German Psychiatrists’ Views of British Asylums in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century”, in International Relations in Psychiatry: Britain, Germany, and the United States to World War II, eds. Volker Roelcke, Paul Weindling, and Louise Westwood (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2010), 12–29.

  11. 11.

    Albrecht Hirschmüller, “The Development of Psychiatry and Neurology in the Nineteenth Century”, History of Psychiatry (1999), 10: 40, 395–423.

  12. 12.

    Gerald N. Grob, Mental Illness and American Society, 1875–1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983); Laura D. Hirshbein, “History, Memory, and Profession: A View of American Psychiatry Through APA Presidential Addresses, 1883–2003”, American Journal of Psychiatry (2004), 161: 10, 1755–1763.

  13. 13.

    Vivian Nutton and Roy Porter, The History of Medical Education in Britain (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 1995).

  14. 14.

    For instance, John. G. Howells and L. Osborn, “Great Britain”, in World History of Psychiatry, ed. John G. Howells (London: Baillière & Tindall, 1975), 168–206; Denis Leigh, The Historical Development of British Psychiatry (New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1961).

  15. 15.

    Roy Porter, “History of Psychiatry in Britain”, History of Psychiatry (1991), 2: 7, 271–279.

  16. 16.

    Michael Donnelly, Managing the Mind: A Study of Medical Psychology in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain (London: Tavistock Publications, 1983).

  17. 17.

    Edward B. Renvoize, “The Association of Medical Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane, the Medico-Psychological Association, and Their Presidents”, in 150 Years of British Psychiatry, 1841–1991, eds. German E. Berrios and Hugh Freeman (London: Gaskell, 1991), 29–78; Richard Russell, “The Lunacy Profession and Its Staff in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century, with Special Reference to the West Riding Lunatic Asylum”, in The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry, eds. William F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (London: Routledge, 1988), 297–315.

  18. 18.

    Forbes Winslow, “The Psychological Vocation of the Physician”, Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology (1854), 7: 25, 106–150, 124.

  19. 19.

    George Weisz, Divide and Conquer: A Comparative History of Medical Specialization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).

  20. 20.

    Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1988); Michel Foucault, Alain Baudot, and Jane Couchman, “About the Concept of the ‘Dangerous Individual’ in 19th-Century Legal Psychiatry”, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry (1978), 1: 1, 1–18; Michel Foucault, Psychiatric Power: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1973–1974 (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).

  21. 21.

    Andrew Scull, “Mad-Doctors and Magistrates: English Psychiatry’s Struggle for Professional Autonomy in the Nineteenth Century”, European Journal of Sociology (1976), 17: 2, 279–305; Andrew T. Scull, The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700–1900 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993).

  22. 22.

    Thomas S. Clouston, “The Position of the Medical Profession in Regard to Certificates of Mental Unsoundness and Civil Incapacity”, Edinburgh Medical Journal (1885), 30: 10, 889–908, 896.

  23. 23.

    Metropolitan Commissioners in Lunacy, Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: Bradbury and Evans, 1844), 167.

  24. 24.

    Anthony Ashley Cooper and Robert Skeffington Lutwidge, Letter to the Lord Chancellor with Reference to Their Duties and Practice Under the Act 8 & 9 Vict., c. 100 (London, 1849), 3.

  25. 25.

    Roy MacLeod, ed, Government and Expertise: Specialists, Administrators and Professionals, 1860–1919 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 5.

  26. 26.

    See Eric J. Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain: Identity, Industry and Empire, 1780–1914 (London: Routledge, 2011).

  27. 27.

    Norman McCord and Bill Purdue, British History 1815–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 214.

  28. 28.

    See Oz Frankel, States of Inquiry: Social Investigations and Print Culture in Nineteenth-Century Britain and the United States (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).

  29. 29.

    Katherine D. Watson, Forensic Medicine in Western Society: A History (New York, NY: Routledge, 2011), 13.

  30. 30.

    James Parkinson, Mad-Houses: Observations on the Act for Regulating Mad-Houses (London: Whittingham and Rowland, 1811), 315.

  31. 31.

    Thomas S. Clouston, “The Position of the Medical Profession in Regard to Certificates of Mental Unsoundness and Civil Incapacity”, Edinburgh Medical Journal (1885), 30: 10, 889–908, 894.

  32. 32.

    John T. Arlidge, On the State of Lunacy and the Legal Provision for the Insane (London: John Churchill, 1859), 150.

  33. 33.

    Henry M. R. Pope, A Treatise on the Law and Practice of Lunacy (London: Chancery Lane, Fleet Street, 1877), 5.

  34. 34.

    Joseph Mortimer Granville, The Care and Cure of the Insane: Being the Reports of the Lancet Commission on Lunatic Asylums 1874-6-7, for Middlesex, the City of London, and Surrey, Vol. II (London: Hardwicke and Bogue, 1877), 151.

  35. 35.

    See 14 Geo. III, c. 49, s. 22; 51 Geo III, c. 79, s. 4; 9 Geo. IV, c. 40, s. 31; 8 & 9 Vict., c. 126, s. 51; 16 & 17 Vict., c. 96, s. 7; 25 & 26 Vict., c. 86, s. 47.

  36. 36.

    House of Commons, “Inspection of County Lunatic Asylum”, Parliamentary Debates (London, 17 March 1842), Column 806, Volume 61.

  37. 37.

    Anne Mary Crowe, A Letter to Dr Robert Darling Willis (London: Printed for the Author, 1811), 38.

  38. 38.

    Anne Mary Crowe, A Letter to Dr Robert Darling Willis (London: Printed for the Author, 1811), 39.

  39. 39.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report; Together with the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence, Appendix and Index (London, June 1860), 19.

  40. 40.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report; Together with the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence, Appendix and Index (London, August 1859), 198.

  41. 41.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report (London, August 1859), 198.

  42. 42.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report (London, August 1859), 23.

  43. 43.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report (London, August 1859), 24.

  44. 44.

    16 & 17 Vict., c. 96, s. 12.

  45. 45.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report (London, August 1859), 185.

  46. 46.

    Select Committee on Medical Registration, Report with Minutes of Evidence (London: House of Commons, 1847), 4.

  47. 47.

    21 & 22 Vict., c. 60.

  48. 48.

    21 & 22 Vict., c. 60, s. 37.

  49. 49.

    See 25 & 26 Vict., c. 86, s. 47.

  50. 50.

    Anne Digby, Making a Medical Living: Doctors and Patients in the English Market for Medicine, 1720–1911 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

  51. 51.

    John C. Bucknill, The Care of the Insane and Their Legal Control (London: Macmillan, 1880), 6.

  52. 52.

    Daniel Noble, Elements of Psychological Medicine, an Introduction to the Practical Study of Insanity (London: John Churchill, 1854), VI.

  53. 53.

    Robert Boyd, “The Neglect of Insanity as a Branch of Medical Education”, The Lancet (1853), 62: 1581, 588–589, 589.

  54. 54.

    John T. Arlidge, On the State of Lunacy and the Legal Provision for the Insane (London: John Churchill, 1859), 99.

  55. 55.

    John Conolly, “Annual Meeting of the Association: Official Report of the Proceedings”, Journal of Mental Science (1858), 5: 27, 56–78, 77.

  56. 56.

    For instance, Anonymous, “The New Lunacy Act for the Regulation of the Care and Treatment of Lunatics: 16 and 17 Vict., Cap. 96”, Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology (1853), 6: 24, 590–595; Anonymous, “The Lunatic Asylums Act, 1853, Condensed”, The Asylum Journal (1854), 1: 2, 17–26; John Frederick Archbold, The New Statutes Relating to Lunacy: Comprising the Law Relating to Pauper Lunatics, with the Practice and Practical Forms, Very Fully Given (London: Shaw & Sons, 1854); Robert S. Lutwidge, “Lunacy Acts: 8 & 9 Vict. c- 100; 16 & 17 Vict. c. 96, 97: Instructions for the Guidance of Superintendents, Proprietors, Medical Practitioners, and Others”, The Asylum Journal (1854), 1: 2, 30–31.

  57. 57.

    Anonymous, “Medical Certificates Under the New Asylums Act”, The Asylum Journal (1854), 1: 5, 65–67, 66.

  58. 58.

    Anonymous, “Medical Certificates of Insanity”, Journal of Mental Science (1861), 7: 37, 139–144, 140.

  59. 59.

    Lyttelton Stewart Forbes Winslow, Manual of Lunacy: A Handbook Relating to the Legal Care and Treatment of the Insane in the Public and Private Asylums of Great Britain, Ireland, United States of America, and the Continent (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1874), 20.

  60. 60.

    O. S. W, Cobbold, “Letter to the Editor”, The Times (London, 3 January 1885).

  61. 61.

    Commissioners in Lunacy, Eighth Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1854), 35.

  62. 62.

    Danby P. Fry, The Lunacy Acts (London: Knight & Co, 1864), 72.

  63. 63.

    16 & 17 Vict., c. 96, s. 13.

  64. 64.

    See for instance, Henry M. R. Pope, A Treatise on the Law and Practice of Lunacy (London: Chancery Lane, Fleet Street, 1877).

  65. 65.

    1854 Greenwood and others v. Sutcliffe and others, Court of Common Pleas, 139 E.R. 93.

  66. 66.

    Anonymous, “Medical Certificates, and Orders of Admission”, The Asylum Journal (1855), 1: 12, 178–180, 178.

  67. 67.

    Anonymous, “Medical Certificates, and Orders of Admission”, The Asylum Journal (1855), 1: 12, 178–180, 178.

  68. 68.

    1862 Hall v Semple, Court of Assizes, 176 E.R. 151.

  69. 69.

    1862 Hall v Semple, Court of Assizes, 176 E.R. 155.

  70. 70.

    George Bodington, “Lunacy certificates: Hall vs Semple”, British Medical Journal (1862), 2: 104, 674–675, 675.

  71. 71.

    Anonymous, “London”, The Port of Spain Gazette (Port of Spain, Trinidad, 7 January 1863), 3; Anonymous, “Extraordinary Lunacy Case”, Mercury (Hobart, TAS, 26 February 1863), 3; Anonymous, “Illegal Detention in a Lunatic Asylum”, The Times of India (Bombay, 24 January 1863), 3; Anonymous, “False Imprisonment for Lunacy, Hall v Semple”, Empire (Sydney, NSW, 24 February 1863).

  72. 72.

    House of Commons, “Confinement of Lunatics, Hall v. Semple, Question”, Parliamentary Debates (London, 23 February 1863); Commissioners in Lunacy, Seventeenth Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1862), 30.

  73. 73.

    George Pitt-Lewis, Robert Percy Smith, and John Anthony Hawke, The Insane and the Law. A Plain Guide for Medical Men, Solicitors, and Others (London: John Churchill, 1895), 107.

  74. 74.

    1862 Hall v Semple, Court of Assizes, 176 E.R. 159.

  75. 75.

    1862 Hall v. Semple, Court of Assizes, 176 E.R. 155.

  76. 76.

    See, for instance, 1862 Scott v Wakem, Court of Assizes, 176 E.R. 147; 1885 R v Whitfield, Court of Appeal, 15 Q.B.D. 122; Anonymous, “Lunacy-Certificates: Neave V. Hatherley”, British Medical Journal (1885), 2: 1285, 304–306; Anonymous, “Actions Against Medical Men Far Signing Lunacy Certificates”, Journal of Mental Science (1887), 32: 140, 529–535.

  77. 77.

    16 & 17 Vict., c. 96, s. 11.

  78. 78.

    Commissioners in Lunacy, Seventeenth Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1862), 39.

  79. 79.

    25 & 26 Vict., c. 111, s. 27.

  80. 80.

    Commissioners in Lunacy, Twentieth Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1866), 48.

  81. 81.

    Commissioners in Lunacy, Twenty-Seventh Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1873), 86.

  82. 82.

    See, for instance, Commissioners in Lunacy, Twentieth Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1866), 46.

  83. 83.

    Commissioners in Lunacy, Thirty-Third Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1879), 126.

  84. 84.

    Commissioners in Lunacy, Twenty-Fifth Annual Report to the Lord Chancellor (London: House of Commons, 1871), 74.

  85. 85.

    John A. Campbell, “The Necessity for Careful Physical as Well as Mental Examination Prior to Sending Patients to Asylums”, The Lancet (1882), 119: 3070, 1069–1070, 1069.

  86. 86.

    See Louisa Lowe, Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes? Report No. 1 of a Case Heard in Queen’s Bench, November 22nd 1872 (London: Burns, 1872); Louisa Lowe, Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes? Report No. 2 Gagging in Madhouses as Practised by Government Servants (London: Burns, 1872); Louisa Lowe, The Bastilles of England; Or the Lunacy Laws at Work (London: Crookended and Co., 1883); Lunacy Law Reform Association, First Report (London: Lunacy Law Reform Association, 1874).

  87. 87.

    Select Committee on Lunacy Law, Report, So Far as Regards the Security Afforded by it Against Violations of Personal Liberty (London, 1877). During the same year, a special commission by The Lancet also revealed some critical aspects of the institutional provisions in England, see Joseph Mortimer Granville, The Care and Cure of the Insane: Being the Reports of the Lancet Commission on Lunatic Asylums 1874-6-7 (London: Hardwicke and Bogue, 1877).

  88. 88.

    Select Committee on Lunacy Law, Report (London, 1877), 177.

  89. 89.

    Edgar Sheppard, “The Lunacy Laws”, The Times (London, 30 September 1884).

  90. 90.

    Thomas S. Clouston, “The Position of the Medical Profession in Regard to Certificates of Mental Unsoundness and Civil Incapacity”, Edinburgh Medical Journal (1885), 30: 10, 889–908, 903.

  91. 91.

    Henry Rayner, John A. Campbell, Adam Robert Turnbull, T. Outterson Wood, and David Yellowlees, “A Discussion on the Certification of Insanity in Its Relation to the Medical Profession”, British Medical Journal (1896), 2: 1865, 797–800, 797.

  92. 92.

    Lyttelton Forbes Winslow, “Lunacy Law”, The Times (London, 3 January 1885).

  93. 93.

    See Forbes Winslow, “Lunacy Legislation”, Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology (1858), 11: 12, 523–535.

  94. 94.

    See John T. Arlidge, On the State of Lunacy and the Legal Provision for the Insane (London: John Churchill, 1859), 84; Joseph Mortimer Granville, The Care and Cure of the Insane: Being the Reports of the Lancet Commission on Lunatic Asylums 1874-6-7, for Middlesex, the City of London, and Surrey, Vol. II (London: Hardwicke and Bogue, 1877), 218.

  95. 95.

    See John Charles Bucknill, The Care of the Insane and Their Legal Control (London: Macmillan, 1880), 44; George H. Savage, “Our Duties in Reference to the Signing of Lunacy-Certificates”, British Medical Journal (1885), 1: 1266, 692–693; William R. Huggard, “The Lunacy Law: Its Defects and a Scheme of Reform”, British Medical Journal (1885), 1: 1255, 117–122.

  96. 96.

    53 Vict., c. 5, s. 330.

  97. 97.

    For instance, James Neil, “An Address on the Examination and Certification of Mental Patients”, British Medical Journal (1908), 2: 2495, 1225–1231.

  98. 98.

    Royal Commission on Lunacy and Mental Disorder, Report (London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1926), 19.

  99. 99.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report (London, August 1859), 24.

  100. 100.

    Select Committee on Lunatics, Report (London, August 1859), 198.

  101. 101.

    Stephen L. Jacyna, “The Physiology of Mind, the Unity of Nature, and the Moral Order in Victorian Thought”, The British Journal for the History of Science (1981), 14: 2, 109–132; Stephen L. Jacyna, “Somatic Theories of Mind and the Interests of Medicine in Britain, 1850–1879”, Medical History (1982), 26, 233–258.

  102. 102.

    Forbes Winslow, “Preface”, Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology (1848), 1: 1, 3–4, 3.

  103. 103.

    Joseph Mortimer Granville, The Care and Cure of the Insane: Being the Reports of the Lancet Commission on Lunatic Asylums 1874-6-7, for Middlesex, the City of London, and Surrey, Vol. II (London: Hardwicke and Bogue, 1877), 106.

  104. 104.

    Henry Maudsley, “An Address on Medical Psychology”, The Lancet (1872), 100: 2554, 185–189, 185.

  105. 105.

    William H. Lowe, “An Address Delivered at the Opening of the Section of Psychology”, British Medical Journal (1875), 2: 762, 176–177, 177.

  106. 106.

    Forbes Winslow, “The Mission of the Psychologist”, Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology (1857), 10: 8, 611–622; James Crichton-Browne, “The History and Progress of Psychological Medicine. An Inaugural Address”, Journal of Mental Science (1861), 7: 37, 19–31; David Skae, “The Legal Relations of Insanity”, Edinburgh Medical Journal (1861), 6: 10, 867–890. These appellations had little to do with the laboratory study of sensory functions. For the creation of an experimental psychology in Germany, see amongst many others Kurt D. Danziger, Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Roger Smith, Between Mind and Nature: A History of Psychology (London: Reaktion Books, 2013).

  107. 107.

    The third edition of the famous Bucknill and Tuke’s Manual of Psychological Medicine presented a chapter on the “special instructions regarding medical certificate” which replicated Bucknill’s framework, see John C. Bucknill and Daniel Hack Tuke, A Manual of Psychological Medicine (3rd Edition) (London: J. A. Churchill, 1874).

  108. 108.

    John C. Bucknill, “On Medical Certificates of Insanity”, Journal of Mental Science (1860), 7: 35, 79–88, 82.

  109. 109.

    John Millar, Hints on Insanity (London: Henry Renshaw, 1861); See also John Millar, Hints on Insanity and Signing Certificate (2nd Edition) (London: Henry Renshaw, 1877).

  110. 110.

    John Millar, Hints on Insanity (London: Henry Renshaw, 1861), 80.

  111. 111.

    James T. Sabben and John Hutton Balfour Browne, Handbook of Law and Lunacy: Or, the Medical Practitioner’s Complete Guide in All Matters Relating to Lunacy Practice (London: John Churchill, 1872), 35.

  112. 112.

    George Fielding Blandford, Insanity and Its Treatment: Lectures on the Treatment, Medical and Legal of Insane Patients (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1877), 322.

  113. 113.

    Thomas Nadauld Brushfield, “On Medical Certificates of Insanity”, The Lancet (1880), 1: 2961, 830–832; Thomas Nadauld Brushfield, “On Medical Certificates of Insanity”, The Lancet (1880), 1: 2956, 638–641; Thomas Nadauld Brushfield, “On Medical Certificates of Insanity”, The Lancet (1880), 1: 2958, 711–713; Thomas Nadauld Brushfield, “On Medical Certificates of Insanity”, The Lancet (1880), 1: 2959, 762–764; Thomas Nadauld Brushfield, “On Medical Certificates of Insanity”, The Lancet (1880), 1: 2957, 676–679.

  114. 114.

    Robert Boyd, “The Necessity of Insanity as a Branch of Medical Education”, Journal of Mental Science (1859), 5: 30, 573–575, 574.

  115. 115.

    Anonymous, “Mr. Nunn on the Study of Psychological Medicine”, Journal of Mental Science (1864), 10: 49, 140.

  116. 116.

    Anonymous, “Teaching of Psychological Medicine”, The Lancet (1865), 85: 2166, 241.

  117. 117.

    J. A. Eames, “An Address Delivered at the Opening of the Section of Psychology, at the Annual Meeting of the British Medical Association, in Cork, August 1879”, British Medical Journal, 2, 250–252, 252.

  118. 118.

    Alexander Sutherland, “The Teaching of Psychological Medicine”, British Medical Journal (1879), 2: 974, 351.

  119. 119.

    Thomas S. Clouston, Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases (London: John Churchill, 1883); Clouston presented the argument in an earlier paper published, see Thomas S. Clouston, “The Study of Mental Disease”, Edinburgh Medical Journal (1879), 25: 1, 1–20.

  120. 120.

    Thomas S. Clouston, Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases (London: John Churchill, 1883), 3.

  121. 121.

    Thomas S. Clouston, Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases (London: John Churchill, 1883), 4.

  122. 122.

    Thomas S. Clouston, “Letter to the Editor”, The Times (London, 3 January 1885).

  123. 123.

    Thomas Nadauld Brushfield, “On Medical Certificates of Insanity”, The Lancet (1880), 1: 2961, 830–832, 831.

  124. 124.

    John A. Campbell, “Note on the Order of Admission of Lunatics to Asylums”, The Lancet (1888), 131: 3368, 515–516, 516.

  125. 125.

    Anonymous, “The Study of Insanity”, British Medical Journal (1875), 2: 758, 52–53, 53.

  126. 126.

    John Conolly, “On the Prospects of Physicians Engaged in Practice in Cases of Insanity”, Journal of Mental Science (1861), 7: 36, 180–194, 192.

  127. 127.

    Robert Wood, “The Medico-Psychological Association. Proceedings at the Annual Meeting of the Association, Held at the Royal College of Physicians, on Thursday, July 13, 1865”, Journal of Mental Science (1865), 11: 55, 383–427, 388.

  128. 128.

    William H. O. Sankey, “The Medico-Psychological Association: The President’s Address for 1868”, Journal of Mental Science (1868), 14: 67, 297–304, 304.

  129. 129.

    Thomas Laycock, “The Objects and Organization of the Medico-Psychological Association: The Anniversary Address”, Journal of Mental Science (1869), 15: 71, 327–343, 337.

  130. 130.

    James Crichton-Browne, “The Address Delivered in the Section of Psychology”, British Medical Journal (1880), 2: 1024, 262–267, 262.

  131. 131.

    Thomas Stretch Dowse, “The Teaching of Psychological Medicine”, British Medical Journal (1879), 2: 975, 390–391, 390.

  132. 132.

    Edmund B. Whitcombe, “Presidential Address Delivered at the Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association Held at Birmingham, July 23, 1891”, Journal of Mental Science (1891), 37: 159, 501–514, 509.

  133. 133.

    Anonymous, “The Certificate in Psychological Medicine”, Journal of Mental Science (1886), 32: 139, 399–400, 399.

  134. 134.

    Anonymous, “Certificate of Efficiency in Psychological Medicine”, Journal of Mental Science (1887), 32: 140, 630–632, 630.

  135. 135.

    Anonymous, “The Certificate in Psychological Medicine”, Journal of Mental Science (1886), 32: 139, 399–400, 399.

  136. 136.

    Scotland adopted the English template for lunacy certificates in 1857, see Lunacy (Scotland) Act, 20 & 21 Vict., c. 71.

  137. 137.

    Anonymous, “Certificate of Efficiency in Psychological Medicine”, Journal of Mental Science (1887), 32: 140, 630–632, 630.

  138. 138.

    Anonymous, “Certificate of Efficiency in Psychological Medicine”, Journal of Mental Science (1887), 32: 140, 630–632, 631.

  139. 139.

    Montagu Lomax, The Experiences of an Asylum Doctor with Suggestions for Asylum and Lunacy Law Reform (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1921), 175.

  140. 140.

    Montagu Lomax, The Experiences of an Asylum Doctor (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1921), 215.

  141. 141.

    Royal Commission on Lunacy and Mental Disorder, Report (London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1926), 20.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for the History & Philosophy of Science & Technology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Filippo Maria Sposini

Authors
  1. Filippo Maria Sposini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Filippo Maria Sposini .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Sposini, F.M. (2023). Building Expert Certifiers: The Rise of Psychological Physicians. In: The Certification of Insanity. Mental Health in Historical Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42742-8_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42742-8_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-42741-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-42742-8

  • eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation