Abstract
In August 2010, heavy rain triggered a series of debris flows, causing widespread destruction and loss of life in Leh, the largest town in Ladakh. In the light of this event, this essay presents an interdisciplinary perspective on flood history, climate change and disaster management in Ladakh and surrounding areas. In the first two sections, we summarise the geological evidence for earlier millennia, followed by a preliminary review of flood events in more recent recorded history. In the third section, we consider patterns of climate change, drawing on a range of different forms of evidence, including the reconstruction of past climates from meteorological records and tree-ring analysis. Finally, we introduce the concepts of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and ‘disaster incubation’ – the idea that disasters are not solely a natural phenomenon but rather that human action and inaction contribute to the scale of misfortune caused by natural events.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
Jahresbericht der Missions-Station Leh 1894. MD 1572 No 10. Unitätsarchiv, Herrnhut. Translations from the German here and in subsequent references by John Bray.
- 4.
Jahresbericht der Missions-Station Leh 1897, MD 1572 No 13. Unitätsarchiv, Herrnhut.
- 5.
The Moravian missionaries supervised the collection of meteorological data on the government’s behalf from 1883 onwards in Kyelang, and from 1887 in Leh. To date we have not been able to gain access to these records.
- 6.
On Honigmann, see Appel (2009). We are grateful to Michaela Appel of the Museum Fünf Kontinente (formerly Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde) in Munich for permission to reproduce this picture.
- 7.
On this point, see Goodall (2004) among other sources.
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- 9.
Our comments in this section are informed by a September 2017 workshop held at the Ladakh International Centre (LIC) in association with the Ladakh Arts and Media Organisation (LAMO) and the National University of Singapore. We are grateful to all the participants of the workshop.
- 10.
See: www.tiss.edu/view/11/projects/all-projects/gyurjas-tiss-lahdc-development-support-programme/. Last accessed on 26 April 2019.
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Appendix: Tentative Chronology of Major Recorded Floods and Debris Flows in Ladakh
Appendix: Tentative Chronology of Major Recorded Floods and Debris Flows in Ladakh
This chronology is an initial working list of incidents over the last two centuries, and we hope to improve on it as we gather more data. The larger GLOFs in the Shyok and Nubra valleys are relatively well documented, but smaller floods and debris flows much less so. The apparent lack of incidents in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s may simply be to do with a lack of records in the sources currently available to us.
Year | Locations | Event types | Data sources |
|---|---|---|---|
1826 | Khumdan glacier (?), Shyok river, Nubra | GLOF | |
1835 | Sultan Chussku glacier, Shyok river, Nubra | GLOF | |
1839 | Khumdan glacier, Shyok river, Nubra | GLOF | |
1841, June | Khumdan glacier, Shyok river, Nubra | GLOF | Cunningham (1854, pp. 103–106) |
1894, July | Leh, Indus Valley, Kargil, Suru Valley | Flood damage to fields in Indus valley, some fields on mountain slopes swept away altogether. Floods, debris flows, bridges destroyed in Kargil, Suru valley. | Jahresbericht Leh (1894). Godfrey (1899) |
1896 | Suru valley | GLOF devastated lower-lying terraces in Kartse, Sankoo, other villages. | Neve (1911, p. 349) |
1897, May | Indus valley, Kargil, Suru. | Non-stop rain in Leh, 18–25 May; houses collapsed in bazaar, bridges swept away. A third of fields destroyed in village near Kargil. Many casualties. | Jahresbericht Leh (1897) |
1898, July | Shyok river, Nubra | GLOF from Kumdan glacier | Hewitt and Liu (2010, p. 534) |
1901, May | Shyok river, Nubra | GLOF from Shyok glacier | Hewitt and Liu (2010, p. 534) |
c. 1904 | Leh area | Floods from Lungmar valley devastated Sankar, Chubi, Yurthung and covered Leh bazaar with mud. | Sheikh (2015, p. 8) |
1913, May | Choglamsar | Sudden Indus flood. | Burroughs and Bass (2018), p. 25) |
1926 | Hunder (Nubra) | Flood and debris flow from the Dok Nala. | Zain ul Abideen, cited in Rizvi (2011). |
1926, October | Shyok river, Nubra valley | GLOF from Chong Kumdan glacier almost destroyed Deskit, wiped out Abadan village. | Mason (1929) |
1929 | Shyok river, Nubra valley | GLOF from Chong Kumdan glacier; 48 villages affected, only one life lost. | Gunn et al. (1930) |
1932, July | Shyok river, Nubra valley, Indus River | GLOF from Chong Kumdan glacier | Mason (1933) |
1933, August | Shyok river, Nubra valley | GLOF from Chong Kumdan glacier. | Hewitt and Liu (2010, p. 534) |
1933 | Leh area | Heavy rainfall, floods (?) led to collapse of 50 houses in Leh. | Sankrityayan (1950, p. 189) |
c. 1935 | Leh area | Floods from Lungmar valley again caused serious damage in Sankar, Chubi, Yurthung. | Sheikh, (2015, p. 8), Zain ul Abideen, cited in Rizvi (2011, p. 3) |
1970 | Nyemo | Houses and fields destroyed in cloudburst followed by floods. | Zain ul Abideen, Abdul Ghani Sheikh, cited in Rizvi (2011, p. 3). |
1978 | Indus valley, Sakti valley | Floods | Robert ffolkes, pers. comm., Rizvi (2011) |
1998, May | Gangles, Gonpa, Sankar, Changspa (Leh) | Floods, debris flows from below Khardong pass. Possible GLOF. | Ladakh Studies 10 (1998, p. 6) |
2000, July, August | Indus valley | Floods washed away most of Tibetan settlement at Spituk, damaged houses elsewhere; at least one person killed. | Ladakh Studies 13 (2000), p. 2, citing Kashmir observer |
2004 | Phyang | Major flood destroyed fields, some houses and the bridge at Phyang Tokpo. | Tashi Morup, personal communication. |
2005 | Sankoo, Suru valley | Mudslide, 3 m deep and 80 m wide from side valley. | Rizvi (2011, p. 4) citing Seb Mankelow and Kim Gutschow. |
2006, July, August | Kargil District, Sankoo Block; Leh district: Leh, Saboo, Phyang, Igoo and Skara, Disket (Nubra) | Cloudbursts triggered flash floods, debris flows. | Ladakh Studies 21 (2007), p. 9, citing Kashmir Observer, Mangat Daily Excelsior; Rizvi (2011, p. 4). |
2006 | Phyang | GLOF | Tsering Dolkar (2016) |
2009 | Chushot | Flood from Stok Nala destroyed standing crops at Chushot | Rizvi (2011, p. 4) citing Zain ul Aabedin. |
2010, August | Indus Valley, Skiu Markha Valley. | Flood, debris flows, hyper-concentrated flows, LLOFs, GLOFs, cloudburst. | |
2013, August | Kargil | Heavy rain led to floods and landslides, washed away part of the Srinagar-Leh highway | Sharma (2018) |
2014, August | Gya | GLOF destroyed houses, agricultural land. | Dolma (2014), Sharma (2018), Schmidt et al. (2020), Majeed et al. 2021 |
2014–2015 | Phugtal river (Zangskar) | Phugtal river blocked by landslide, creating a 14 km-long lake. Dam burst in May 2015. Extensive damage to agricultural land. | Tsering Dolkar (2015a) |
2015, July-August | Leh district (including Youlkham, Sumoor in Nubra; and Biama in Sham); Kargil district (including Shargole, Chiktan, Hardass, Karkitchoo, Drass, Suru valley) | Floods following heavy rain caused widespread damage to houses and infrastructure across the region. | Tsering Dolkar (2015b) |
2017 August | Achinathang, (near Khalatse) | GLOF (?), flash flood, killed 4 people, destroyed road bridge. | Kunzang Chosdol (2017) |
2018 August | Saboo, Shey, Stakmo and Stakna | Heavy rain damaged houses, canals, roads, vehicles. | Anon (2019) |
2021 August | Rumbak valley | GLOF damaged a bridge, eroded agricultural fields and uprooted trees. The trees and entrained sediments partly blocked the Indus for several days. | SANDRP (2021) |
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Bray, J., Wasson, R.J., Srivastava, P., Ziegler, A.D. (2023). Floods and Debris Flows in Ladakh: Past History and Future Hazards. In: Humbert-Droz, B., Dame, J., Morup, T. (eds) Environmental Change and Development in Ladakh, Indian Trans-Himalaya. Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42494-6_3
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