Abstract
In this chapter, I argue, first, that in key contributions to scientific Child Study precocity is vilified to an extent that exceeds all but the most pejorative literary depictions. This is concurrent with an emphasis on two supposed differences between adults and children in general: first, that the child is defined by her imagination and, second, that, therefore, she lies. I then read the child protagonist’s storytelling in Frances Hodgson Burnett’s A Little Princess (1905) as a study of the moral status of children’s lies, to argue that Sara legitimises a different relationship between child and adult from the prevalent one of hierarchical difference. For the precocious child narrator of Nesbit’s Treasure Seekers series, Oswald Bastable, meanwhile, the ‘imagination’ is not unique to children. Through Oswald, Nesbit celebrates a more equal relationship between child and adult. This chapter thus argues that the vilification of precocity in Child Study reflects an almost belligerent tenacity to the idea that adults have progressed beyond childhood and that the fact that precocious children are celebrated in some of the most inventive works of Victorian children’s literature reflects the imaginative possibilities of thinking about development outside the restrictive frameworks of linearity, hierarchy, and teleology.
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Notes
- 1.
Sally Shuttleworth, The Mind of the Child: Child Development in Literature, Science, and Medicine, 1840–1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 340.
- 2.
See Shuttleworth’s chapter, ‘Lies and Imagination’, pp. 60–74, for a study of how these two ‘childhood’ traits are represented in Victorian fiction, though Shuttleworth does not discuss works classed as ‘children’s literature’.
- 3.
Sara Crewe first appeared in the serialised story ‘Sara Crewe; or What Happened at Miss Minchin’s’, published in St Nicholas magazine during 1885. This series was subsequently revised and expanded for the stage and first performed, as The Little Princess, in 1902. The play’s success prompted Burnett’s publishers to invite her to expand it further, into a full-length novel, A Little Princess, published in 1905. See Barbara Jo Maier, ‘“A Delicate Invisible Hand”: Frances Hodgson Burnett’s Contributions to Theatre for Youth’, in In the Garden: Essays in Honour of Frances Hodgson Burnett, ed. Angelica Shirley Carpenter (Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2006), 113–129, for a discussion of Burnett’s influence on the genre of children’s theatre, and Marian E. Brown, ‘Three Versions of A Little Princess: How the Story Developed’, Children’s Literature in Education, 19/4 (1988), 199–210, on differences and similarities between the three versions. Although Burnett is now best known for The Secret Garden, A Little Princess was more popular during her lifetime. See Roderick McGillis, A Little Princess: Gender and Empire (New York: Twayne, 1996), 27–34, on the critical reception of A Little Princess.
- 4.
Claudia Nelson offers a brief analysis of A Little Princess (Claudia Nelson, Precocious Children and Childish Adults: Age Inversion in Victorian Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013), 33–37). However, in keeping with her focus more generally, Nelson focuses on what Sara’s precocity says about ‘dominant hierarchies of class, ethnicity, and even identity itself’, rather than on what that precocity suggests about the hierarchy it most obviously implicates: that of child and adult (Nelson, 37).
- 5.
Although several writers, including Mary Louisa Molesworth, Dinah Craik, and Julia Ewing, experimented with child narrators before Nesbit, Oswald is generally considered the most successful example of the period and is certainly by far the most well-known. Barbara Wall, for example, describes Oswald as ‘the first truly individual child narrative voice’ (Barbara Wall, The Narrator’s Voice: The Dilemma of Children’s Fiction (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991), 152). See Gubar, Artful Dodgers, for more information on the development of the child narrator during the nineteenth century.
- 6.
This comparison with Oswald is not intended to trivialise the experiences endured by McCurdy or any other victim of child abuse. The question of consent hardly applies to Oswald’s precocious activity. The impossibility of consent is what makes so much of the other precocious activity I refer to—sexual, economic, military—constitute abuse. However, studying Oswald’s precocity reveals a process through which abuse is compounded by ideology when it is endured by children. Without dismissing the heinous nature of child abuse in all its forms, I would suggest that to view such abuse as the ‘end’ of childhood augments a traumatic experience into a stigmatised loss. The trauma and the loss are real, but the stigma can be done away with.
- 7.
George King, ‘Education in Parochial Schools: Its Influence on Insanity and Mental Aberration’, Association Medical Journal, 3/141 (1855), 855–857 (856).
- 8.
The contents of this book were originally presented to The Royal College of Physicians as part of The Fitzpatrick Lectures on the History of Medicine, in 1907 and 1908. Both its original form and its subsequent posthumous publication testify to the long-lived fascination with childhood precocity in the medical profession.
- 9.
Leonard Guthrie, Contributions to the Study of Precocity in Children and The History of Neurology (London: Eric G. Millar, 1921), 52. Subsequent citations will be given in parentheses.
- 10.
The word ‘precocious’ is still ‘mildly derogatory’ today (‘precocious’, Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2014), www.oed.com [last accessed 28 August 2016]).
- 11.
Henry James, ‘The Author of Beltraffio’, in Henry James: The Figure in the Carpet and Other Stories, ed. Frank Kermode (London: Penguin, 1986), 57–112 (64).
- 12.
Sully, ‘A Learned Infant’, The Cornhill Magazine, 8/43 (1887), 48–60 (54); G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens (1906; 8th edn, London: Methuen, 1913), 95; Chesterton, ‘Old Curiosity Shop’, in The Collected Works of G. K. Chesterton XV: Chesterton on Dickens, ed. Alzina Stone Dale (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1989), 271–281 (273). The child Sully refers to is the subject of a German text, ‘Life, Deeds, Travels, and Death of a Very Wise and Very Nicely Behaved Four-Year-Old Child, Christian Heinrich Heineken’, which was written by Christian’s tutor, Christian von Schöneich, and published in 1779. Sully discusses this text because it is, he claims, one of a ‘very small’ number of ‘perfect tributes to the genius of childhood’ (Sully, ‘Learned’, 49). Guthrie mentions the same child—referred to as Christian Hemerken—in his discussion of the connection between precocity and early death (Guthrie, 44).
- 13.
Sully, ‘Learned’, 54.
- 14.
Sully, ‘Learned’, 48.
- 15.
Sully, ‘Learned’, 48.
- 16.
Sully, ‘Learned’, 49.
- 17.
That the behaviour that signifies artistic genius is pathological is consistent with a long-held association between mental illness and creativity. See Madness and Creativity in Literature and Culture, ed. Corinne Saunders and Jane Macnaughton (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), on the expressions and implications of this association in literature and in medicine.
- 18.
James Sully, ‘Genius and Precocity’, The Nineteenth Century: A Monthly Review, 19/112 (June 1886), 827–848 (848).
- 19.
Sully, ‘Genius’, 843.
- 20.
Sully, ‘Genius’, 848.
- 21.
Anon., ‘Precocity’, Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, 24/631 (1867), 689–690 (690). This metaphor retains the sexual connotations of precocity even when the ‘adult’ characteristic under scrutiny is not sexuality.
- 22.
See also the claim that ‘precocious talent is like hot-house fruit, it lacks the hardiness and aroma of products grown more slowly’ (Anon., ‘Precocious Talent’ Musical Times and Singing Circular, 1844–1903, 26/505 (1885), 132–133 (133)).
- 23.
Anon., ‘Is Genius Precocious?’, The Review of Reviews, 29/172 (1904), 372.
- 24.
Sally Shuttleworth, The Mind of the Child: Child Development in Literature, Science, and Medicine, 1840–1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 60–74.
- 25.
Philip Sidney’s The Defence of Poesy (1595) is a particularly well-known analysis of this association, but see, for example, A. R. Sharrock, ‘The Art of Deceit: Pseudolus and the Nature of Reading’, The Classical Quarterly, 46/1 (1996), 152–174, especially 152–156, on the same association in classical literature.
- 26.
Alexander von Gontard, ‘The Development of Child Psychiatry in Britain’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 29/5 (1988), 569–588 (573).
- 27.
James Crichton-Browne, ‘Psychical Diseases in Early Life’, Journal of Mental Science, 6 (1860), 284–329 (314).
- 28.
Crichton-Browne, ‘Diseases’, 315.
- 29.
Robert Hunter Steen, ‘Moral Insanity’, Journal of Mental Science, 59/246 (1913), 478–486 (478–479).
- 30.
Steen, 480.
- 31.
George Savage, ‘Moral Insanity’, Journal of Mental Science, 27 (1881), 147–155 (150).
- 32.
Fletcher Beach, ‘Insanity in Children’, Journal of Mental Science, 44 (1898), 459–475 (470). See 473 for Beach’s claim that ‘over-pressure’ might cause mental disorders, including moral insanity; this again indicates that association between precocity and mental illness which von Gontard has observed.
- 33.
Beach, 470.
- 34.
Savage, 150.
- 35.
James Sully, Studies of Childhood (London: Longmans, 1895), 255.
- 36.
Sully, Studies, 264.
- 37.
G. Stanley Hall, ‘Children’s Lies’, American Journal of Psychology, 3/1 (1890), 59–70 (60).
- 38.
Hall, ‘Lies’, 61, emphasis added.
- 39.
Anon., ‘Love of Children’, Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, 31/ 815 (1871), 724–725 (725).
- 40.
Marah Gubar, Artful Dodgers: Reconceiving the Golden Age of Children’s Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 4.
- 41.
See Sally Shuttleworth, The Mind of the Child: Child Development in Literature, Science, and Medicine, 1840–1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 60–74.
- 42.
Crichton-Browne, ‘Dreamy Mental States’, in Stray Leaves from a Physician’s Portfolio (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1927), 1–42 (6). The essay was first given as a lecture to the West London Medico-Chronological Society in June 1895.
- 43.
Crichton-Browne, ‘Mental States’, 7 and 8.
- 44.
See Jenny Bourne Taylor, ‘Between Atavism and Altruism: The Child on the Threshold in Victorian Psychology and Edwardian Children’s Fiction’, in Children in Culture: Approaches to Culture, ed. Karín Lesnick-Oberstein (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), 89–121, on the prevalence of the association between imagination and childhood in nineteenth-century mental science. One voice which dissented from this view can be found in Clifford Allbutt’s contribution to the quarterly meeting Medico-Psychological Association of Great Britain and Ireland, recorded in ‘Notes and News’, Journal of Mental Science, 35 (1889), 129–134 (133).
- 45.
Shuttleworth, Mind, 84.
- 46.
Sully, ‘George Sand’s Childhood’, Longman’s Magazine, 15/86 (1889), 149–64 (149).
- 47.
Sully, Studies, 25; Sully, ‘Sand’, 149.
- 48.
Sully, ‘Sand’, 149.
- 49.
Jenny Holt, ‘“Normal” versus “Deviant” Play in Children’s Literature: An Historical Overview’, The Lion and the Unicorn, 34/1 (2010), 34–56 (52). Holt actually uses Sully to substantiate this claim. While, as I will show, he was more ambivalent about the imagination than Shuttleworth suggests, the previous paragraph indicates that he was more receptive to a Romantic view of the imagination than many other psychologists in the period.
- 50.
In addition to her novels and poems for adults, Ingelow wrote several books and stories for children. See Kathleen Hickok, ‘Ingelow, Jean 1820–1897’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), www.oxforddnb.com, [last accessed 31 August 2016].
- 51.
Jean Ingelow, ‘The History of an Infancy’, Longman’s Magazine, 15/88 (1890), 379–390 (387).
- 52.
Ingelow, 389.
- 53.
For example, William Blake’s Songs of Innocence (1789) is ostensibly written under the inspiration of a child ‘on a cloud’, and it is the child’s point of view throughout which has the insight of poetic genius (William Blake, ‘Introduction’, Songs of Innocence in Blake: The Complete Poems, ed. W. H. Stevenson (1971; 3rd edn, Edinburgh: Pearson, 2007), 59–60 (59)). Likewise for Wordsworth, as argued in chapter one, the child has a capacity for ‘poetic delight’, though only adult has the capacity for poetry.
- 54.
Crichton-Browne, ‘Mental States’, 7.
- 55.
Sully, Studies, 61, emphasis added.
- 56.
Ingelow, 388.
- 57.
Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘Child’s Play’, in Virginibus Puerisque and Other Papers (London: Heinemann, 1924), 106–116 (192).
- 58.
James R. Kincaid, Child-Loving: The Erotic Child and Victorian Culture (New York: Routledge, 1992), 219–245.
- 59.
Kincaid, 223.
- 60.
Jacqueline Rose, The Case of Peter Pan: Or, The Impossibility of Children’s Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 8.
- 61.
Shuttleworth, Mind, 84.
- 62.
Hall, ‘Lies’, 64; Sully, Studies, 28.
- 63.
Holt, 37.
- 64.
Holt, 35.
- 65.
Holt, 35.
- 66.
Hall, ‘Lies’, 66; Shuttleworth, Mind, 87.
- 67.
Shuttleworth, Mind, 84.
- 68.
Hall, ‘Lies’, 68.
- 69.
Hall, ‘Lies’, 67.
- 70.
Holt, 37.
- 71.
von Gontard, 574.
- 72.
Shuttleworth, Mind, 7. See also Shuttleworth, Mind, 50.
- 73.
Kincaid, 246.
- 74.
Kincaid, 248.
- 75.
Frances Hodgson Burnett, A Little Princess (London: Penguin, 1996), p. 17 and p. 69. Subsequent citations will be given in parentheses.
- 76.
Frank Kermode, The Genesis of Secrecy: On the Interpretation of Narrative (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979), 98.
- 77.
Shuttleworth, Mind, 333.
- 78.
Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre, ed. Margaret Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 35.
- 79.
Robert Newsom, ‘Fictions of Childhood’, in The Cambridge Companion to Charles Dickens, ed. John O. Jordan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 92–105 (100, emphasis added).
- 80.
Brontë, 37.
- 81.
Newsom, 101. Chialant similarly argues that this and other autobiographical fictions by Dickens emphasise the ‘distance between narrator and character and give the former a leading role’ (Maria Teresa Chialant, ‘The Adult Narrator’s Memory of Childhood in David’s, Esther’s and Pip’s Autobiographies’, in Dickens and the Imagined Child, ed. Peter Merchant and Catherine Waters (Farnham: Ashgate, 2015), 77–91 (88)).
- 82.
Elizabeth Lennox Keyser, ‘“The Whole of the Story”: Frances Hodgson Burnett’s A Little Princess’, in Triumphs of the Spirit in Children’s Literature, ed. Francelia Butler and Richard Rotert (Connecticut: Library Professional Publications, 1986), 230–243 (234).
- 83.
Roger L. Bedard’s claim that ‘Sara reflects all that was considered proper for children’ is therefore untenable (Bedard, ‘Sara, Jack, Ellie: Three Generations of Characters’, Children’s Literature Association Quarterly, 9/3 (1984), 103–104 (103)). Maier makes a similar claim but extends it to apply to characters in children’s literature in general (Maier, 120).
- 84.
Elizabeth Rose Gruner, ‘Cinderella, Marie Antoinette, and Sara: Roles and Role Models in A Little Princess’, The Lion and the Unicorn, 22/2 (1998), 163–187 (173).
- 85.
Sully, ‘Learned’, 60.
- 86.
Berlioz, quoted in Anon., ‘Precocious Talent’ (132).
- 87.
Anon., ‘Precocious Talent’, 132.
- 88.
Anon., ‘Precocious Talent’, 132.
- 89.
Bain founded Mind in 1876. As the first English-language journal of psychology, Mind was influential in consolidating the status of psychology as a professional academic discipline. See Francis Neary, ‘A Question of “Peculiar Importance”: George Croom Robertson, Mind and the Changing Relationship Between British Psychology and Philosophy’, in Psychology in Britain: Historical Essays and Personal Reflections, ed. G. C. Bunn, A. D. Lovie, and G. D. Richards (Leicester: BPS, 2001), 54–71, for a discussion of the role of Mind in the early history of psychology.
- 90.
Florence Maccunn, ‘A Plea for Precocious Children’, Good Words (Jan 1897), 268–272 (268).
- 91.
Alexander Bain, ‘John Stuart Mill’, Mind, 14 (1879), 211–229 (212).
- 92.
Bain, 212.
- 93.
Bain, 214.
- 94.
Bain, 225, emphasis added.
- 95.
Bain, 227.
- 96.
Bain, 227. In fact, Mill’s ‘application’ was ‘excessive’ so that, like many precocious peers in literature and in medicine, ‘his health suffered’ (Bain, 225).
- 97.
Anon., ‘Precocity’, The Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, 15/388 (1863), 430–431 (430). It is consistent with Shuttleworth’s observation that, once again, the concern seems to be more for the potentially deceived observer than for the child subjected to ‘forcing-tricks’.
- 98.
Sully, ‘Learned’, 60.
- 99.
This is in keeping with the earliest work claiming to explore the child mind, Rousseau’s Emile, in which, as Shuttleworth notes, ‘the perspective throughout…is decidedly not that of the child itself but the tutor’ (Shuttleworth, Mind, 5).
- 100.
Kermode, Secrecy, 16.
- 101.
Kermode, Secrecy, 17.
- 102.
Levine, p. 17.
- 103.
Burnett, ‘The Whole of the Story’, in Burnett, A Little Princess (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1917), v–vii (v). Subsequent citations will be given in parentheses.
- 104.
James, ‘Preface to Roderick Hudson’, in The Critical Muse: Selected Literary Criticism, ed. Roger Gard (London: Penguin, 1987), 450–463 (452).
- 105.
John Kucich, The Power of Lies: Transgression in Victorian Fiction (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 4.
- 106.
Kermode, Secrecy, 98.
- 107.
McGillis, 70.
- 108.
Rosemarie Bodenheimer, ‘Dickens and the Knowing Child’, in Dickens and the Imagined Child, ed. Peter Merchant and Catherine Waters (Farnham: Ashgate, 2015), 13–26 (19).
- 109.
Bodenheimer, 19.
- 110.
Sully, Studies, 255.
- 111.
Gubar, Artful Dodgers, 11.
- 112.
Gubar, Artful Dodgers, 72.
- 113.
Kincaid, 219–245.
- 114.
Mary Croxon, ‘The Emancipated Child in the Novels of E. Nesbit’, Signal, 14 (1974), 51–64 (51). Croxon cites several earlier critics who make this claim. See also Marcus Crouch’s Treasure Seekers and Borrowers: Children’s Books in Britain, 1900–1960 (London: Library Association, 1962) and The Nesbit Tradition for an analysis of Nesbit’s influence, particularly through this innovation, on twentieth-century children’s fiction. Nesbit’s somewhat snide reference to Little Lord Fauntleroy, or at least to its cultural impact, suggests that she had this emancipation in mind when she wrote the series.
- 115.
The Treasure Seekers series first appeared in the form of a series of short stories which Nesbit wrote for the Pall Mall and Windsor magazines. I will refer to the following editions: The Story of the Treasure Seekers (Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 1995), The Wouldbegoods (Middlesex: Puffin Books, 1981), New Treasure Seekers (Middlesex: Puffin Books, 1982). Unless otherwise specified, I quote from The Story of the Treasure Seekers. I will use the following abbreviations for in-text citations from the other works in the series: TS; The Wouldbegoods: WB; New Treasure Seekers: NT.
- 116.
See Holt for a critique of the representation of money in the series. Diana Chlebek, ‘Money as Moral and Social Catalyst in Children’s Books of the Nineteenth Century’, Children’s Literature Association Quarterly, 11/2 (1986), 77–80, offers an alternative analysis.
- 117.
Beach, 469.
- 118.
Beach, 469.
- 119.
Hall, ‘Lies’, 66.
- 120.
Steen, 478–479.
- 121.
G. E. Shuttleworth and W. A. Potts, Mentally Deficient Children: Their Treatment and Training (1895; 4th edn, Philadelphia: P. Blakiston’s, 1916), 140.
- 122.
Julia Briggs, ‘Bland, Hubert (1855–1914)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 24 May 2012), www.oxforddnb.com [last accessed 16 May 2019].
- 123.
Susan Anderson, ‘Time, Subjectivity and Modernism in E. Nesbit’s Children’s Fiction’, Children’s Literature Association Quarterly, 32/4 (2007), 308–322 (308).
- 124.
Anderson, 310.
- 125.
Anderson, 310.
- 126.
Anderson, 310. See also Erika Rothwell, ‘“You Catch it if You Try to do it Otherwise”: The Limitations of E. Nesbit’s Cross-Written Vision of the Child’, Children’s Literature, 25 (1997), 60–70 (61 and 66), and ‘Nesbit, E(dith) (1858–1924)’, in The Oxford Companion to Children’s Literature, ed. Humphry Carpenter and Mari Prichard (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 371–374 (374), for a more critical analysis of Nesbit’s contribution to children’s literature.
- 127.
Peter Brooks, Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), 4.
- 128.
Brooks, 4.
- 129.
Anderson, 310.
- 130.
Marah Gubar, ‘Partners in Crime: E. Nesbit and the Art of Thieving’, Style, 35/3 (2001), 410–429 (412).
- 131.
According to Knoepflmacher, Thackeray’s The Rose and the Ring likewise ‘call[s] attention to the arbitrariness of our tendency to separate adult fictions from those that appeal to children’ (Knoepflmacher, Ventures into Childland: Victorians, Fairy Tales, and Femininity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 111–112). The Treasure Seekers series thus substantiates Knoepflmacher’s claim that Nesbit is ‘far less resistant, ideologically and formally’, to The Rose and the Ring than are earlier authors such as John Ruskin, George MacDonald, or Lewis Carroll (Knoepflmacher, Ventures, 114).
- 132.
Anderson, 310.
- 133.
Rothwell, 63.
- 134.
Anita Moss, ‘E. Nesbit’s Romantic Child in Modern Dress’, in Romanticism and Children’s Literature in Nineteenth-Century England, ed. James Holt McGavran, Jr. (London: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 225–247 (129).
- 135.
Rothwell, 63.
- 136.
Kincaid, 246.
- 137.
Brooks, 4.
- 138.
Anita Moss, ‘The Story of the Treasure Seekers: The Idiom of Childhood’, Touchstones: Reflections on the Best in Children’s Literature, 1 (1985), 188–197 (195).
- 139.
Gubar, ‘Partners’, 411.
- 140.
Karín Lesnik-Oberstein, ‚Childhood and Textuality: Culture, History, Literature‘, in Lesnik-Oberstein, 1–28 (24).
- 141.
Mavis Reimer, ‘Treasure Seekers and Invaders: E. Nesbit’s Cross-Writing of the Bastables’, Children’s Literature, 25 (1997), 50–59 (52).
- 142.
Julia Briggs, ‘E. Nesbit, the Bastables, and The Red House: A Response’, Children’s Literature, 25 (1997), 71–85 (72).
- 143.
Lois R. Kusnets, ‘Henry James and the Storyteller: The Development of a Central Consciousness in Realistic Fiction for Children’, in The Voice of the Narrator in Children’s Literature: Insights from Writers and Critics, ed. Charlotte F. Otten and Gary D. Schmidt (London: Greenwood Press, 1989), 187–198 (189).
- 144.
Kucich, 201.
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Laing, R. (2024). Lies and Imagination: Precocity in Children’s Literature. In: The Precocious Child in Victorian Literature and Culture. Palgrave Studies in Nineteenth-Century Writing and Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41382-7_4
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