Keywords

7.1 Introduction

Heritage is constructed in the present for the present (Park, 2014). Sites of historical and social significance, albeit not originally designed as tourist attractions, have been ‘heritagized’ and integrated into destinations’ promotional strategies (Da Cunha, 2019). For example, in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), favelas (so-called slum areas), have become key aspects of official sightseeing tours and government promotion strategies, alongside more ‘traditional’ heritage sites such as churches and museums (Da Cunha, 2019). The values which define heritage are constantly shifting in response to external social, cultural and economic factors. The growing interest visitors have for heritage has positive economic impacts for destinations, but also as has long been recognised, a downside, as the overflow of visitors is impacting negatively on the preservation of many world heritage sites. Venice (Italy) epitomises this situation (Nolan & Séraphin, 2019): its heritage as a key visitor attraction, has become a victim of its own success. These are but some of the delicate issues faced by heritage tourism professionals.

This chapter focuses on heritage tourism management in a post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster destination focusing on the western Caribbean island of Haiti. Haiti has a single UNESCO World Heritage Site, The Haitian National History Park, which comprises three significant historical built sites, Citadel, Sans-Souci and Ramiers (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/180). These nineteenth-century structures are significant and unusual in a Caribbean context because they were built by freed enslaved African-Caribbean peoples (much of the nineteenth-century built Caribbean heritage, for example Barbados’ UNESCO World Heritage Site at the Garrison is largely a product of European colonial activity). Although the case study is a cultural site, we raise wider issues that speak to Haiti’s ability to effectively manage and promote its natural heritage too (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1
A map of the Caribbean islands. It marks the location of the cultural site in Cap-Haitien in northern Haiti and westward of Santiago in Dominican Republic.

Location of the site (Niall Finneran, basemap free source ArcGIS)

Full size image

This study is of importance because published literature (see, for example, Da Cunha, 2019; Dodds & Butler, 2019; Séraphin et al., 2020) discusses the impacts of over-tourism on heritage, but little is known about the management of heritage sites in under-visited destinations such as Haiti. This study is addressing this gap in knowledge. Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere (c. US$ 1800 per capita in late 2022 according to the World Bank [World Bank, 2022]). Unlike other Caribbean islands, Haiti struggles to attract tourists—900,000 according to the 2019 estimates (source World of Data, 2019)—and ranks 21st in the Caribbean. Tourism as a whole contributes only 3 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product. The central question of this chapter is how can the Haitian National History Park play a greater role in driving the tourist economy here and what steps need to be taken to ensure long-term and sustainable success?

7.2 A Wider Context

In this section, we unpack key theoretical and operational concepts that underpin the analysis in this chapter. If we take the UNESCO framework for defining World Heritage Sites as a starting point (UNESCO, n.d.), heritage can be defined as related to cultures or to natural environments. In reality, UNESCO world heritage policy recognises that sites cannot be neatly pigeonholed (Uluru in Australia is an example of a mixed site). UNESCO also defines another sub-category of cultural heritage, intangible heritage, which relates to non-physical expressions of human culture such as food, dance, storytelling and craft-making traditions (Smith, 2006) which have become increasingly popular over recent decades contributing to the basis for experience-focused tourism.

Heritage is often used as a key element of destination marketing strategies in tourism (Park, 2014). This is typically the case of destinations promoting or branding themselves as cultural and ‘authentic’ destinations (Davidas, 1997). It is important to highlight the strong potential that history, culture and heritage tourism have in terms of capacity to attract visitors. This is mainly due to the fact that anything related to heritage tends to be connected with positive emotions and feelings such as nostalgia, trust, attachment, commitment, etc. Within the context of the Caribbean in particular, heritage tourism is used by destinations to stand out from other destinations that are mainly focusing on assets such as the sun, sand and sea. Heritage tourism is also addressing a consumers’ needs and demands, especially for those who want to be engaged in a learning process while also having fun (Urry, 1990). Heritage tourism in this way contributes to a sense of wellbeing and fulfilment.

A negative characteristic of heritage tourism is commodification of a site (Urry, 1990). Here visitor expectations and practical concerns override the need for heritage managers to retain the authentic character of a site. Economic development and preservation of heritage are thus sometimes conflicting (Chakravarty, 2001). When the character of a heritage tourist destination is turned into a mere product or service, the destination is said to offer a ‘staged authenticity’ (Andrews & Leopold, 2013). Over-tourism is therefore a real threat to heritage sites; the ingress of tourists to the same place often at the same time subsequently impacts negatively on the environment of the destination, and negatively affects the quality of life of local residents (as well as the actual tourist experience itself). Sites can thus become a victim of their own success (see, for example, Sanchez & Adams, 2008; Dodds & Butler, 2019; Séraphin & Yallop, 2020; Séraphin et al., 2020).

In Haiti tourism in general, and cultural tourism in particular, remains relatively lightly developed in comparison with other Caribbean islands. The popular conception of Haiti remains stereotypically focused upon the role of Vodou in Haitian life, and although this has developed into something of a trope, Vodou is socially significant as it played a pivotal role for the survival of Haitians during their enslavement (Séraphin & Nolan, 2014). It enabled the enslaved not only to maintain a connection with their continent of origin (Africa), but also provided them with a mechanism to resist forced conversion to Christianity (Dalembert & Damoison, 2003; Saint-Louis, 2000). Vodou is undoubtedly an important component of Haitian identity, it is a vibrant and dynamic African-Caribbean religious expression yet it has also been commodified and packaged for tourist consumption (Séraphin & Nolan, 2014). Indeed, the original logo of the Destination Marketing Organisation (DMO) of Haiti designed in 1939 was a black mambo or Houngan (a Vodou priest). In 2012, it was changed to a more neutral logo depicting sun, sea and sand thus reflecting a move away from a stereotyped vodou theme (Bonnardel et al., 2020). Séraphin et al. (2016b) have argued that a balance should be kept between the marketing or commercial aspect of the branding strategy and the identity/cultural dimension of the destination. This ambidextrous management approach is important for the success of any management strategy (Vo-Thanh et al., 2020). We now turn to a more specific consideration of the local conditions on the ground in Haiti. We have noted above that in comparison with other Caribbean tourism destinations, Haiti is less developed and this is a consequence of colonial history.

7.3 Haiti as a Post-Colonial, Post-Conflict and Post-Disaster Destination

During the colonial period, Haiti was the richest French sugar colony in the Caribbean and was popularly known as the ‘pearl of the Antilles’ (Deneault, 2005). Under the military leadership of the rebel Toussaint L’ Ouverture (1743–1803), a successful slave rebellion resulted in the overthrow of the French colonial system (Roc, 2008). Under the leadership of Dessalines, Haiti became in 1804 the first African republic in the world (Gilles, 2012). Haiti today though is associated with political instability, poverty and violence, all of which results from its historical French colonial exploitation (Eve di Chiara, 1988; Higate & Henry, 2009; Girault, 2010). The negative image of the destination represents a major barrier to tourism development of the destination (Séraphin, 2014a, 2014b). To appreciate the potential of Haiti as a tourist destination, a chronological overview of the tourist development of the island is required.

During the period c. 1939–1960, Haiti was the most popular tourist destination of the Caribbean and it traded extensively on its heritage as a selling point. Major events such as the Port-au-Prince (capital of Haiti) International Exhibition of 1949 helped to put Haiti on the map of world cultural tourism destinations (Clammer, 2012; Séraphin, 2010; Tardieu, 2014; Thomson, 2014). Haiti really reached its peak between 1950 and 1956, a period known as the Golden Age of Tourism in Haiti (Destin, 2014). From 1960 to 1986 Haiti was ruled by the Duvalier family, Francois and Jean-Claude Duvalier, respectively known as ‘Papa Doc’ and ‘Baby Doc’. This was a period of political repression and violence. The violence orchestrated by the ‘Tonton Macoute’ (after the army in the service of the Duvalier) effectively put an end to the tourism industry in Haiti during this period (Séraphin, 2014a, 2014b; Thomson, 2014).

The period from 1986 to 2016 is remembered for two significant events. Firstly, the 2010 earthquake which destroyed the country, and subsequently decimated the tourism industry. Haiti became known during this period as the Republic of Non-Governmental Organisations (Séraphin et al., 2018). Secondly the administration of President Michel Martelly (2011–2016) saw an influx of international hotels and Haiti was rebranded as a ‘sun, sand and sea destination’. Businesses were encouraged to invest in the country as part of the scheme ‘Haiti is open for business’ (Séraphin, 2014a, 2014b). Since 2016, the country has been plunged again into political, social and economic turmoil. As a result of these events, the very limited number of tourists who visited the country were being targeted and assaulted by rioters. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic struck in March 2020 and restrictions were placed on public travel worldwide (Jamal & Budke, 2020; Séraphin, 2020). These local and global issues have combined to make Haiti’s journey to becoming a competitive, desirable heritage tourist destination even more difficult.

The Haitian National History Park (HNHP) could play an important role in the recovery of Haiti’s tourism industry. The number of visitors to the park, reached its peak (80,238 visitors) in 2013, under the administration of President Martelly, whose objective was to turn the northern region of Haiti (where the park is located) into a tourism destination (Banque Mondiale, 2018; Belfort, 2018). The site is closely associated with Henry Christophe, a self-proclaimed king who came to power in 1807, and who was responsible for the construction of the key structures in 1811. Nowadays, the HNHP features in most of the promotional materials of the Haitian Destination Marketing Organisation (Belfort, 2018). This said, the HNHP is more than a tourism or UNESCO World Heritage Site. It represents one of the most widely recognised symbols of the Haitian heritage, as many fights for freedom against the French colonial system started from Citadelle Laferriere (Belfort, 2018). As such the HNHP occupies an important place in Haitian social memory. The HNHP only really became regarded as an important part of the Haitian heritage canon from 1932 during the administration of President Stenio Vincent (Belfort, 2018), and during this decade (1939) the first Haitian Destination Management Organisation (DMO) appeared (Séraphin, 2014a, 2014b). From the 1930s, the HNHP began to play an important role in the development of heritage tourism in Haiti.

7.4 Managing the Haitian National Heritage Park

In this section, we examine the management of the HNHP in more detail. The work presented here is based upon first-hand fieldwork undertaken by the authors at the HNHP. Underpinning our research design are two interlinked contentions. Firstly, we recognise that the site is an important international heritage site under a global management framework (UNESCO) and it is also an economically important tourism site too. Secondly, any management plan needs to take into account these competing demands, as well as those of all the stakeholders involved (foreign and domestic tourists, local people living near the site, businesses and heritage managers in Haiti).

Our starting point is that the HNHP is very important for locals from a symbolic perspective, and it is an important part of local and national social memory. Yet owing to weaknesses in the management of the site, few local people benefit economically from the HNHP. Secondly, it is important to recognise that the potential pull factor of the HNHP is important at pre-visit stage (through marketing). However, in terms of the actual visitor experience, surveys have shown that visitors expectations are not met. The overall hypothesis is that there is a dissonance between the potential of the HNHP and what it actually delivers to both locals and to visitors: all of which is due to a poor management approach, mainly caused by the political, economic and social instabilities of the destination.

Our research study is first and foremost based on an ethnographic approach which demands the research is immersed in the quotidian life of the target groups (Hammond & Wellington, 2013, 62; (Fox et al., 2014, 64). Participant observation is a core part of the ethnographic approach, and fieldwork is a prerequisite for this method (Brunt et al., 2017).

Research was conducted over four days in the north of Haiti meeting with people in charge of tourism development in the area, observing and interviewing three tour guides and three tourists. The tour guides were asked questions about their perception of the role of tour guide, their qualifications, the content of their presentation when tour guiding and their perception of the HNHP (Séraphin, 2013). As for the tourists, one female, and two males were selected. They were asked about their motivation, experience of and perceptions of the park. Further interviews were carried out in Port-au-Prince with three experts: the DMO manager, a former Haitian tourism minister and finally the Project Manager for the Haitian National History Park in charge of the scheme Projet de Préservation du Patrimoine et Appui au Secteur Touristique. They were each asked about the Government plan for tourism overall as well as the importance given to heritage and the development of the Haitian National History Park.

A selection of excerpts from the interviews conducted are presented below. An indicative translation is provided beneath each section for English speakers.

Tour guides emphasised that tourists were keen to know about the history of Haiti:

Quand vous faites visiter aux touristes et que vous commencez à les expliquer les lieux, ils commencent à nous poser des questions sur des lieux (souvent nos discours sont en fonction des questions posées par des visiteurs). Tout autant que la personne pose des questions, cela rend l’histoire plus belle. Cependant, on part d’une histoire construite avec la vie de Christophe, son palais, sa femme et pour terminer avec une visite de plus d’une heure à la Citadelle. C’est surtout à la Citadelle que les touristes posent beaucoup plus de questions.

When you show tourists around and start explaining places to them, they start asking us questions about them (often our guided talks are based on questions asked by visitors). When a person asks questions, it makes the story more beautiful. However, we begin from a story built around the life of Christophe, his palace, his wife and we end with a visit of more than an hour to the Citadel. It is especially at the Citadel that tourists ask many more questions.

Continued visitor access is being impeded due to the site not being well maintained:

On ne peut pas continuer à faire visiter ce monument car rares sont les espaces qui sont ouverts au public. Nous sommes obligés de continuer ainsi, mais nous savons bien qu’on peut faire mieux. On a tellement de choses à raconter sur la Citadelle.

We can’t continue to visit this monument because few spaces are open to the public. We have to continue like this, but we know we can do better. We have so many things to tell about the Citadel.

Some of the guides are not trained as tour guides. A result of this lack of training, and lack of focus on quality, means that the narratives conveyed by tourist guides to visitors frequently lack any sense of consistency in terms of content:

Les guides ne racontent pas les mêmes histoires. Il y en a ceux qui racontent les vraies histoires du site et d’autres qui racontent n’importe quoi. Nous ne sommes pas responsables des dérives quant à l’histoire racontée sur les sites. Mais les guides qui sont formés racontent la vraie histoire de la Citadelle.

Guides don’t tell the same stories. There are those who tell the real stories of the site and others who tell made up stories. We are not responsible for any deviations from the story told on the sites. But the guides who are trained tell the real story of the Citadel.

In some families, being employed as a tour guide has become a tradition:

Quand mon père faisait visiter le Parc aux touristes, j’avais l’habitude de l’accompagner. Après, j’ai pris la relève, et je fais ce métier depuis plus de 40 ans.

When my father showed tourists around the Park, I got into the habit of accompanying him. Afterwards, I took over and I have been doing this job for more than 40 years.

For Cohen (1985), the role of the tour guide has four main functions: first as pathfinders, ensuring that tourists visit the right place, safely and have a good understanding of the places visited. The second role is the animator. As part of this function, tour guides need to socialise with visitors, and be able to respond well to their questions. The third role is as the tour leader. As part of this role, the guide encourages visitors to interact with each other, with local people and with their surrounding environment. Last but not least, is the professional role. As part of this function, the tour guide needs to provide detailed, accurate and consistent information to visitors.

Séraphin (2013) and Thomson (2014) note that in Haiti tour guides are not performing any of these roles because of their lack of knowledge and training. Their motivation is not always to share a passion of their knowledge about a site, but to obtain money from visitors. The lack of political stability and the insecure climate in Haiti makes it difficult for the guide to ensure the safety of visitors. It is important for local authorities to regulate the profession of tour guide, as this role is important in terms of image building and image changing of a destination (Dahles, 2002). Professional practice is a very important element in destination planning too (Meliou & Maroudas, 2010). Any strategy promoting cultural and natural heritage sites in Haiti needs to take these issues into account.

The reactions of tourists are summed up in the following brief excerpts. What is particularly evident is that those tourists, representing the Haitian diaspora, convey a particularly positive emotional importance to the HNHP:

Dès que j’ai mis mes pieds sur la route de la citadelle, j’ai senti une émotion à la fois de tristesse, de joie et d’incompréhension. De la joie c’est quand même mon peuple qui a bâti ce moment (sic) sans ciments. Et aujourd’hui en France c’est du jamais vu. Un sentiment de tristesse parce que je me suis dit qu’ils ont souffert pour construire ce bâtiment sur cette hauteur.

As soon as I set foot on the road to the citadel, I felt an emotion of sadness, joy and incomprehension at the same time. Joy that it is still my people who built this monument without cement. And today in France it is unheard of. A feeling of sadness because I said to myself that they suffered to build this building.

Haitians are proud to have a site listed by UNESCO. The park makes them proud to be Haitian (even if not born in the country):

C’est l’une des merveilles du monde d’après l’UNESCO. Le roi Henri Christophe également, c’est quelqu’un qui est connu à travers le monde.

It is one of the wonders of the world according to UNESCO. King Henri Christophe too, he is someone who is known throughout the world.

Permettra de faire une rétrospective sur nous-mêmes en vue de comprendre comment les ainés avaient travaillé durs pour nous donner cette nation haïtienne, et ce que nous devons faire aujourd’hui pour garder haut ce flambeau. Quand on regarde ce qu’ils ont fait à de maigres moyens, c’est comme si nous ne faisons rien aujourd’hui. Connaître ces monuments nous permettra de mieux connaitre où nous sommes aujourd’hui.

This will allow us to reflect on ourselves in order to understand how the elders had worked hard to give us this Haitian nation, and what we must do today to keep this flame alive. When you look at what they have done with meager means, it is as if we are doing nothing today. Knowing these monuments will allow us to better know where we are today.

Pour moi qui ne suis pas né en Haïti, une visite à la Citadelle est une fierté. Lorsqu’on regarde ce qu’un petit pays comme Haïti avait fait il y a plus de deux-cents ans, on doit être fier de notre origine.

For me, who was not born in Haiti, a visit to the Citadel is a source of pride. When we look at what a small country like Haiti did more than two hundred years ago, we must be proud of our origins.

The Haitian diaspora has played a significant role in the rebuilding of the hospitality sector in Haiti. Indeed, after the 2010 earthquake, many international hotels opened in Haiti, either owned or managed by Haitians from the diaspora (Séraphin & Paul, 2015). This diaspora is contributing to the development of significant skillsets in Haiti today (Minto-Coy & Séraphin, 2017). Paul and Séraphin (2014), even argued that the Haitian diaspora have the social responsibility to develop the country. This makes the diaspora links so crucial. Indeed, Meylon-Reinette (2010) explained that the connection between Haiti and Haitians born in Haiti and Haitians born overseas is not the same. She noticed a ‘de-diasporisation’ of the Haitians born abroad, in other words, a lesser interest for the home-country or country or origin.

Finally we turn to issues expressed during our interviews with tourism leaders. Key themes which arose here included: visitors receive limited if not poor understanding/knowledge of (the history of) Haiti; Park management is difficult owing to balancing activities required to meet tourism needs with expectations of residents in the Park; importance for community engagement in tourism development projects is emphasised; there is a lack of vision in terms of developing the Park as a tourism attraction; and in turn, a lack of tourism promotion and marketing of the area.

Existing literature on tourism in Haiti primarily highlights political, economic, social factors experienced in the country, conveying a negative image of the destination, impeding the development of tourism. However, little or nothing has been said about the lack of vision and leadership in tourism in Haiti. The key issue with Haiti is that there is not an educated elite (Roc, 2008). The classic role of the elite is usually one of investing in the country and generating economic activity, wealth, jobs and influencing the Government to increase trade, promote productivity, ensure stability and protect investments. In Haiti, the elite does not assume this role. Its basic activity is trade, with minor investments in case of crisis in the country. The weak governance and absence of accountability has facilitated the creation of parallel economies and patronage patterns. The Government and representatives of the private sector (the elite, local and international companies in Haiti) have done very little to encourage the sustainable economic development of the country (Barreau, 2012; Séraphin, 2012).

7.5 Conclusion

The HNHP is an important site for all Haitians (both diaspora and non-diaspora). The HNHP can contribute to fostering a sense of community among Haitians. Equally importantly, it can help to make them proud of their roots despite the negative image of the destination conveyed by the media. All attempts to turn the Park into a viable tourist product have failed, despite its huge potential. On top of the political, economic and social context, the lack of strategic political leadership is playing an important role in the current poor state of this UNESCO site. Difficulties of managing UNESCO sites in post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster destinations include: the wider socio-political and economic context of Haiti as a whole, a lack of professionalism of tourism actors, lack of leadership, absence of vision and lack of data insights on visitors and poor marketing images being conveyed of the destination. Clearly the political and economic climate in Haiti needs to improve before the situation might improve, but the value of this site for helping guide improvements in socio-economic terms is huge. This we would argue is also the case for other cultural and natural heritage sites on the island.

This study has highlighted the fact that for post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster destinations, heritage sites are more than ‘just’ heritage sites. They can also represent an important centralising force for good and a well of social memory and they provoke an emotional and sensory attachment (Andrews & Leopold, 2013; Chapter 2). This is a force for good for both local Haitians as well as member of the diaspora who have the potential to bring in important economic capital and educational skills to the community. Heritage can make these connections stronger (Foley et al., 2012; Kikuchi-Uehara et al., 2016; Nunkoo, 2017). Last but not least, vision and leadership are as important as a context in the success and performance of a tourism destination. Although our analysis has considered the role of a single cultural heritage site in Haiti, we argue that all heritage, cultural and natural, has an important part to play in the healthy social, cultural and economic life of the nation.