Keywords

17.1 Introduction

Mental health is a leading cause of disability globally and there is a growing emphasis on promoting mental well-being (UN General Assembly, 2011; WHO, 2013; 2014). The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines mental health as a state that allows individuals to utilise their abilities, cope with stress, work effectively, and contribute to their community (WHO, 2004). There is evidence linking mental health to experience of nature, including parks and public green spaces in urban areas (Bratman et al., 2012; Douglas 2012; Kaplan, 2001; Maller et al., 2016). While some studies have shown positive associations between parks and mental health, the effects can vary by gender and age (Annerstedt et al., 2012; Astell-Burt et al., 2014). The quality of parks and green spaces has been shown to be important for mental health, with residents in neighbourhoods with higher-quality parks having lower levels of psychological distress (Francis et al., 2012). Green spaces also play a crucial role in advancing biodiversity and ecological health and are therefore important for both human and planetary well-being.

One of the most significant impacts of urbanisation on the environment is the loss of green spaces. As cities grow, more land is needed to accommodate the growing population, resulting in the destruction of natural habitats. According to a study by the United Nations, the world’s urban areas are expected to grow by 2.5 billion people by 2050, which means that more green spaces will be lost to make room for buildings and infrastructure (United Nations, 2018). The scarcity of green spaces in cities has numerous negative effects on people’s health and well-being. Studies have shown that access to green spaces can improve mental health and reduce stress levels (Bowler et al., 2010). Without green spaces, people are more likely to experience mental health problems, such as anxiety and depression. Additionally, the lack of green spaces can lead to physical health problems, such as obesity, as people are less likely to engage in outdoor activities.

Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a potential solution to bridge the gap between people and nature. VR technology can simulate natural environments and provide exposure to a range of settings from scenic landscapes to wildlife habitats, in a controlled and safe environment. VR also has the potential to reach a wide audience, including people who may have difficulty accessing natural environments due to physical or financial limitations. Thus, the integration of VR technology in promoting exposure to natural environments has the potential to offer a new and innovative approach for education, communication, and well-being promotion.

17.2 Overview of Virtual Reality Technology: Definition, Development, and Its Potential Uses

Virtual Reality (VR) has been a popular topic in information technology for the past several years, with the release of the film Ready Player One by Steven Spielberg bringing VR to the attention of millions of people. However, VR technology has been around since the 1960s, but its widespread adoption has been hindered by high equipment costs and low quality (Newman et al., 2022; Valmaggia, 2017). VR has been referred to as ‘over-hyped’ for a long time (Walsh & Pawlowski, 2002) and was even thought to be a ‘dead’ technology (Slater & Sanchez-Vives, 2016), but the release of affordable, high-quality, and consumer-grade VR headsets for gaming and entertainment has contributed to the revival of the VR technology starting from the mid-2010s.

VR technology simulates a virtual environment that immerses users, giving them a sense of presence or of ‘being there’ (Bowman & McMahan, 2007). Researchers from various disciplines, including computer science, engineering, and the social sciences, have been studying VR technology for decades, but the focus has mostly been on the technology itself, leaving limited understanding of its behavioural and organisational impacts (Walsh & Pawlowski, 2002). As a result, interest in VR research has been increasing among information system researchers (Cavusoglu et al., 2019; Khairunisa et al., 2022; Lee, 2022). The VR market has been estimated to grow from $7.3 billion in 2018 to $120.5 billion in 2026 (Fortune Business Insights, 2019, as reported in Yang & Han, 2021), with a significant portion of the market being consumer software, primarily video games. However, companies such as IKEA, Volkswagen, and Takeda have started to use VR technology for non-gaming purposes. Further development of the idea of using simulated worlds for non-gaming purposes was also embraced by Meta and the development of the idea of the metaverse (Duan, et al., 2021; Knox, 2022). Despite some potentially detrimental side effects, VR technology has also gained uses in the context of health (Grassini & Laumann, 2021).

The ability for VR to promote a high sense of presence in users has been exploited for both clinical uses and well-being promotion (Frost et al., 2022). The technology has been shown to be a promising tool for diagnosing and treating medical conditions, including stress, social anxiety, chronic pain, and Alzheimer’s disease (García-Betances et al., 2015; Grassini, 2022a, 2022b; Jones et al., 2016). VR has been effective in treating PTSD and anxiety disorders, as well as distracting patients from physical pain during medical procedures (Indovina et al., 2018). VR-based diagnostic testing could potentially provide objective results for conditions such as schizophrenia, ADHD, and autism, leading to earlier and more accurate diagnoses (Kim et al., 2019a, 2019b).

17.3 Closing the Knowledge-To-Action Gap: Communication Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has published a special report on the impacts of global climate change on nature and society (Masson-Delmotte et al., 2018). The report highlights the dire consequences of global warming, even if the Earth’s temperature increases by just 0.5°C. It predicts that rising temperatures will lead to food shortages, increased wildfires, and the mass die-off of coral reefs by as early as 2040. Despite increasing media attention on the human-induced rate of climate change, research from the behavioural sciences has found that people may perceive climate change as a non-urgent, psychologically distant risk, which has led to delayed action and decision-making about mitigation and adaptation (Van der Linden et al., 2015). However, it is worth noting that an increased awareness of problems related to climate change and concerns about the phenomenon have become more common among the general population (Leiserowitz et al., 2022). This has led to new psychological phenomena of distress, generally referred in current literature as climate anxiety (for a review see Soutar & Wand, 2022).

Traditionally, one of the greatest challenges in communicating climate science to the public is bridging the knowledge-to-action gap (Moser & Dilling, 2011). This gap refers to the general lack of environmental behaviour change by individuals or society at large, even when there is greater communication about environmental problems and heightened public awareness. To bridge this gap, successful communication methods involve cognitive, affective, and behavioural dimensions (Lorenzoni et al., 2007; Moser & Dilling 2011; Nelson et al., 2018a, 2018b; Van der Linden et al., 2015). For example, people need to gain an understanding of the issue, experience an emotional and cognitive response—such as interest or worry—and then actively respond by changing their behaviour or taking political action. Research has shown that the message content (Gifford & Comeau, 2011) and level of visual immersion (Innocenti, 2017; Rosenberg et al., 2013; Shin, 2018) can impact the intensity of emotional responses and influence behaviour (Baberini et al., 2015).

The nature documentary series Our Planet has recently gained significant media attention for using negative framing of human-induced climate change impacts on nature to encourage viewers to visit a conservation website (Lowry, 2019). In addition to framing, virtual reality (VR) technology has also garnered attention for its ability to increase immersion and one’s sense of presence, which is believed to impact emotions and improve people’s connection to the subject matter (Diemer et al., 2015). In 2017, Fortune magazine published an article claiming that virtual reality (VR) can increase awareness, evoke empathy, and elicit action, citing a Facebook report that ‘48% of virtual reality charity content viewers were likely to donate to the causes they experienced’ and a report by the United Nations stating that their VR production Clouds over Sidra, which depicts the life of a 12-year-old Syrian refugee, helped raise twice the charity’s normal rate (Samit, 2017).

However, these studies lack controlled experimental designs, and other uncontrolled factors may have contributed to the supposed increase in donations, such as increased media attention on the Syrian crisis that year, regardless of VR technology’s use at the fundraiser. The Facebook report and a study by the market research company Nielsen (2017) found that donation intentions were higher after exposure to a 360° video compared to other media, but these only considered hypothetical donation decisions. The idea of experimentally testing the impact of different levels of immersion (low vs. high immersive environments) on emotional response and prosocial behaviour emerged from the recent surge of media articles suggesting that virtual reality ‘can make you a better person’ and is ‘the ultimate empathy machine’ (Chang, 2018; Millar et al., 2023; Samit, 2017; West, 2015). Nelson et al. (2020) further explored this concept in their study reporting promising results.

17.4 Virtual Reality and Prosocial Behaviour: Evidence from Laboratory Studies

Several laboratory studies at Stanford University’s Virtual Human Interaction Lab focus on the effects of VR on encouraging prosocial behaviour (Ahn et al., 2014, 2016) and environmental behavioural intentions (Ahn et al., 2014). Evidence suggests that VR interactions can increase a person’s sense of presence, improving their connection to the subject matter and affecting behaviour. In one study, Ahn et al. (2014) compared the effects of cutting a tree in VR to reading a written description or watching a video of the tree-cutting process to promote paper conservation. The virtual experience resulted in a 20% decrease in paper use during the experiment compared to participants who read a print description of tree-cutting. In another experiment by Ahn et al. (2016), participants wore a VR headset and experienced what it’s like to be a cow raised for dairy and meat. After the experience, participants reported eating less meat. However, preliminary research by the authors of this paper found no statistical differences in university students’ charitable giving behaviour for coral reef conservation exposed to varying levels of immersion in an underwater VR world (Nelson et al., 2019). While some scholars believe VR can create empathy with non-human actors, such as simulating the experience of being a cow or coral (Ahn et al., 2016), other scholars are critical of this concept (Ramirez, 2017).

17.5 Emotional Framing of Environmental Communication Using Immersive Systems

In the context of communication, framing refers to the semantic restructuring of identical information (Hallahan, 2008). Valence framing involves presenting information in either a positive or negative light. Positive message valence describes actions that lead to favourable outcomes, while negative message valence describes the consequences of inaction, which lead to adverse conditions (Avineri & Waygood, 2013). Classic economic theory assumes that presenting information in different frames should not affect an individual’s preferences. However, research has shown that people’s decisions can be influenced by positive or negative semantics, a cognitive bias known as the framing effect (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981).

In the realm of climate change communication, it is crucial to frame messages in a way that encourages environmentally friendly behaviour. While the effects of framing on attitudes are somewhat understood, there is a surprising scarcity of empirical research examining the effects of message framing on pro-environmental behaviour (Cheng et al., 2011; Jacobson et al., 2019). Furthermore, the literature on positive and negative message framing is inconsistent and highly contextual (Rothman et al., 2006). Virtual reality shows promise in enhancing pro-environmental behaviour and charitable giving, despite current limited evidence and the need for more research to understand the underlying mechanisms and address limitations of existing studies.

17.6 Virtual Nature Health Promotion

As noted earlier in this chapter, a substantial body of research has established the connection between nature experience and positive psychological outcomes such as changes in affect, stress recovery, and cognitive restoration (Browning et al., 2020). A significant portion of these studies make use of simulated or virtual nature, which includes visual media, recorded sounds/soundscapes, and virtual reality (VR) in laboratory settings. Prior research has explored the impact of computer-mediated forms of nature, such as images displayed in slide shows (Berman et al., 2008; Gladwell et al., 2012) or videos (Mayer et al., 2009; Van den Berg et al., 2003), on physiological and psychological processes.

For instance, Gladwell et al. (2012) found that viewing nature images led to a significant increase in heart rate variability compared to viewing urban images, and van den Berg et al. (2003) reported improved mood after watching a video of a forest walk compared to a street walk. Grassini et al. (2019) found that people looking at natural images reported to be more relaxed than people looking at urban scenes, and the effect was detectable also from neurophysiological markers. Grassini et al. (2022) found that a similar psychophysiological effect was detectable when participants were exposed to videos of natural environments compared to videos of urban or neutral environments. These studies aimed to control confounding variables by examining the effects of actual nature in controlled experimental settings. However, these studies have all used exposition media that deliver a low level of immersion and therefore sense of presence. Modern VR systems, on the other hand, can be used to stimulate user senses in a more realistic and immersive manner.

Despite not affording the same consistency or strength of outcomes as direct nature experience, VR nature can still have psychological benefits as shown by several studies (Bolouki, 2022; Lee et al., 2022; Ünal et al., 2022). VR nature can provide an alternative for individuals who are unable to experience real nature due to various reasons, including physical limitations, urbanisation, or lack of access to green spaces (Li et al., 2021). Additionally, VR nature can provide a balance between the desire for environmental experience and the need for environmental protection and health and safety, as seen in the use of VR for heritage sites (Godovykh et al., 2022). Such use of VR can help individuals learn about the history, culture, and significance of these sites without putting the sites themselves at risk of damage or degradation.

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of relevant studies indicate that VR nature is associated with increased positive affective states and reduced negative affective states, self-reported stress, and fatigue (Li et al., 2022). Lee et al. (2022) found in their systematic review that affective recovery from negative emotions was the most consistently observed outcome in VR nature studies. This highlights the potential for VR nature to help individuals cope with stress and negative emotions, and promote positive well-being. Meanwhile, Bolouki’s (2022) systematic review and meta-analysis found both positive and negative affect to be consistently affected by VR nature, with greater effects for negative affect. This suggests that VR nature can have a broad impact on individuals’ emotional states and may be particularly useful for improving mood and reducing negative affect. However, there are also reports of negative affect reductions in response to VR built environments (Bolouki, 2022). Thus, researchers should consider the psychological benefits of different environments, not just nature, in their studies of VR environments and their impact on psychological well-being (e.g., see Weber & Trojan, 2018, for a review of restorative urban environments).

The use of VR built environments can help individuals experience the benefits of urban green spaces, or the benefits of visiting heritage sites in situations where physical access is not possible. The way VR nature is presented also plays a crucial role in determining its psychological benefits. Li et al. (2022) found that medium immersion in virtual nature was associated with greater positive affect outcomes compared to high or low immersion. This suggests a trade-off between creating a sense of presence in the VR environment and avoiding adverse effects such as VR sickness, which can be attributed to the use of head-mounted devices (HMDs). Lee et al. (2022) reported that exposure duration of 10 minutes or more was associated with more consistent affective benefits but noted the need to balance longer exposure time with the increased possibility of negative user experiences. Bolouki (2022) also highlighted that users’ comfort and familiarity with VR technology can impact the psychological benefits achieved in simulated nature. It is essential to consider how VR environments are presented to users in order to maximise their potential to generate positive psychological outcomes.

In conclusion, while VR nature may not have the same psychological benefits as direct nature experience, it can still have positive effects on affective states. Researchers should focus on ensuring that users feel immersed in the VR environment while minimising the occurrence of adverse effects, which may depend on the technology used, administration, and target audience. VR nature can provide an alternative for individuals who are unable to experience real nature and may be particularly useful for improving mood and reducing negative affect. Furthermore, the use of VR nature can provide a balance between the desire for environmental experience and the need for environmental protection and health and safety, making it a valuable tool for promoting well-being and learning about heritage sites. It is important for researchers to continue exploring the potential of VR nature and how it can best be utilised to promote positive psychological outcomes.

17.7 Technology for Ecotourism

The United Nations General Assembly’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals, aiming to address environmental, social, and economic challenges (Gue et al., 2020). Among these goals, environmental concerns are particularly challenging, as human activities are often the cause of environmental degradation. The tourism industry, for example, has been associated with environmental degradation due to its contribution to global carbon emissions (Bhutto et al., 2021a, 2021b; Lenzen et al., 2018). However, the tourism sector also contributes significantly to economic growth and cultural enrichment (Movono et al., 2018). As a result, it is crucial to strike a balance between economic growth and environmental sustainability and explore sustainable solutions to reduce the negative impact of tourism on the environment.

One of the proposed solutions to reduce the impact of tourism on the environment is virtual reality tourism (VRT). VRT involves the simulation of tourist destinations through visualisation, immersion, and interactivity, providing individuals with a realistic experience of tourism without the need for physical travel (Gutierrez et al., 2008; Guttentag, 2010). VRT can be a sustainable alternative to traditional tourism, as it does not generate pollution or contribute to environmental degradation. However, it’s important to consider that VRT may not always have the same economic benefits as traditional tourism, despite its positive impact on the environment. Therefore, while VRT has the potential to be a sustainable alternative to traditional tourism, it is crucial to assess its full impact on both the environment and the economy before fully embracing it as a solution.

Recent advancements in virtual reality technology, coupled with the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on travel, have made VRT a more viable option for sustainable tourism (Talwar et al., 2022). VRT is not only a solution for sustainable tourism, but it has also been employed to promote awareness of endangered areas such as marine conservation (Koh et al., 2023), the protection of the Great Barrier Reef (Reilly, 2017), and other protected or endangered areas (e.g., Ecoegypt nd.). Organisations such as national parks have also recently adopted VR solutions to allow citizens to experience and explore the great outdoors (some examples: Birtles nd; Lane, 2020; Watson nd). To ensure the long-term acceptance and use of VRT, it is crucial to understand individuals’ perceptions and attitudes towards this technology. Research in this area is essential as it can help promote sustainable consumption and drive societal, national, and global sustainability orientation (Anderson & Bows, 2011; Lorek & Fuchs, 2013).

17.8 Challenges and Limitations

Virtual Reality (VR) technology has come a long way in terms of its development but still has a long way to go before it can be fully utilised in all its potential applications. One major challenge facing VR technology is the lack of standardisation in its presentation and technology (LaRocco, 2020). Currently, each developer has their own specifications and functionality, making it difficult for applications to be easily transferable between devices. The only standardisation that can be seen is with popular games that are designed to work across different VR platforms. This lack of standardisation also makes it challenging to troubleshoot bugs and receive proper support for any issues. Efforts to standardize VR technology are underway, but they are still in their early stages (LaRocco, 2020).

VR technology is facing other challenges regarding the hardware and software requirements for professional VR development. VR development software tends to consume a large amount of data space on computers and has high power consumption (Fernández & Alonso, 2015). VR headsets can also be heavy and cause physical strain on users, leading to headaches and pain, especially in the neck and shoulders (Kaplan et al., 2020). The long-term effects of VR use on users’ eyesight are not yet known, but it is known to cause eye strain, especially with prolonged usage (Hirzle et al., 2022). Long-term effects of prolonged use of VR have not been studied yet, but it has been found that there may be health risks associated with its use (e.g., Grassini & Laumann, 2021), and that individual characteristics of the users may make some of them more susceptible to ill effects related to the use of VR (Grassini & Laumann, 2020; Grassini et al., 2021; Thorp et al., 2022, 2023).

A common issue in VR technology is the lag between a user’s movements and the visual display within a VR headset (Laviola, 2000). The headset’s tracking often does not keep up with the user’s movements, reducing their immersion and causing dizziness or ‘cybersickness’ which is a phenomenon where users feel symptoms of motion sickness, characterised by, e.g., nausea, dizziness, and light-headedness, because of using a VR device (Hamad, 2021; McCauley & Sharkey, 1992). The exact cause of cybersickness is not yet known, but it is believed to be due to a conflict between the user’s visual system and vestibular system or an inability to perceive or react to new dynamic situations (Laviola, 2000; Stanney et al., 2020). Cybersickness can be exacerbated by several factors, including prolonged VR exposure, the user’s predisposition to motion sickness, fatigue, or nausea, and how adapted the user is to VR applications (Laviola, 2000). Technical factors, such as noticeable lags, position tracking errors, and visual distortions, can also increase the likelihood of cybersickness (Laviola, 2000). If users continue to experience cybersickness, it can be a hindrance to the widespread development and utilisation of VR applications (Stanney et al., 2020).

Despite these challenges, VR technology is becoming increasingly accessible as it evolves. The cost of VR headsets is still high, but it is comparable to most gaming consoles. Headsets like the Oculus Quest 2, for instance, cost about $300 for the base model and can be fully operated without a computer, making it one of the more accessible VR headsets on the market. Most other VR headsets, however, require a high-end computer with a powerful graphics card that can manage VR applications, making them more expensive overall and out of reach for most people (Kaplan et al., 2020). The cost of VR technology is one of the major barriers to its growth as a household technology, and often to its use in research (Newman et al., 2022).

As VR technology evolves, it is becoming more accessible, especially compared to its earlier stages. The cost of VR headsets on the market is still higher than most people can afford, but it is now on par with most gaming consoles. Consumer-oriented last-generation headsets like the Oculus Quest 2 are becoming increasingly affordable and can be fully operated without a computer. However, most of the ‘traditional’ VR headsets require a ‘VR-ready’ computer, which is typically more expensive than most computers, making them more expensive overall and less accessible to most people. Furthermore, the general acceptability of VR among different groups of users may vary depending on various factors, such as age, sex, motivation, and perceived benefits and risks. One of the main factors that may influence the acceptability of VR is age. Older people may have different needs, preferences, and expectations than younger people when using VR. For example, older people may be more concerned about the usability and accessibility of VR devices, as well as the potential negative effects of VR on their health and well-being (e.g., motion sickness, eye strain, isolation). On the other hand, older people may also benefit from using VR for enhancing their cognitive abilities, social engagement, and quality of life (Abdul Rahman et al., 2020). VR has been used for both assessment and training of elderly with impaired episodic memory (La Corte et al., 2019) and as a potential aid for patients with dementia (Hayhurst, 2018).

VR may also pose some risks for communication strategies, as it may be argued that it may provoke disengagement from the real world and potentially reduce the sense of empathy with real entities. However, the current literature on the topic suggests instead a positive effect of VR on empathic feelings towards social situations in the physical world (Schutte & Stilinović, 2017). VR may also raise ethical concerns, as it may expose users to unwanted or harmful content, manipulate their perceptions and emotions, or collect their personal data without their consent (Gonzalez-Franco et al., 2019). A further challenge and potential limitation for the mass adoption of VR systems is how to handle and collect data from the immersive environments. VR systems can generate large amounts of data from various sources, such as user interactions, eye tracking, physiological sensors, and environmental variables (Feltham, 2018).

These data can provide valuable insights into the user’s behaviour, preferences, emotions, and cognitive processes. However, they also pose ethical and practical issues regarding data privacy, security, storage, analysis, and presentation (Addis & Kutar, 2018). For example, VR data can reveal sensitive information about the user’s identity, health condition, personality traits, or political views (Feltham, 2018). Therefore, researchers need to ensure that they follow appropriate protocols for obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting their anonymity and confidentiality, encrypting, and storing data securely, and complying with relevant regulations and standards, as the European GDPR framework (Henriksson, 2018).

17.9 Conclusion

In conclusion, virtual reality technology has the potential to revolutionise environmental education by providing immersive and interactive learning experiences. The use of VR in environmental education can offer a fresh perspective and a new dimension to learning, making it more engaging and interesting. It can effectively educate individuals on the impact of human actions on the environment and the importance of preserving natural spaces. The use of VR in environmental education can also provide a platform for learners to witness the consequences of their actions and the positive impact of their conservation efforts. Furthermore, VR can be integrated with current tourism strategies, such as virtual guided tours, or guided tours using mixed reality (where virtual elements are added in addition to the real world, see e.g., Futurism, n.d.). This method to promote engaging tourism experiences has been already studied in the context of heritage tourism (see, e.g., Jiang et al., 2023), which can offer a more informative travel experience. This can promote a greater appreciation for the environment and inspire learners to take action to protect it.

Another significant application of VR is improving the health of those who cannot access natural environments by providing nature exposure. This can be especially beneficial for individuals who are unable to travel or have limited mobility. VR can simulate natural environments and offer a calming and restorative experience for individuals who are experiencing stress, anxiety, or depression. However, it is important to note that further research is necessary to explore the full potential of VR in environmental education and its effectiveness in promoting environmental awareness and conservation. The technology is still relatively novel, and there is much to be learned about its impact and effectiveness. Furthermore, it may be questioned whether or not the technology has reached a level of maturity sufficient for a large-scale acceptability. In summary, VR offers a valuable opportunity to inspire individuals to make positive changes to the environment. It can provide a dynamic and engaging learning experience, promote greater appreciation for nature, and improve the health and well-being of individuals. As this technology continues to evolve, it is essential to explore its potential and use it as a tool to create a more sustainable and environmentally conscious society.