Keywords

12.1 Introduction

This chapter explores not theory into practice, but theology into practice. Perhaps more accurately, it reflects on engagements of Muslims with the natural world with a central case study based around Fahima (F), an English Muslim. F is women of colour with a Bangladeshi background and is observant in her faith. Her contributions to this chapter should be self-evident; she provides the Muslim aspect of this co-authored chapter. Christina (C) lectures in Religious Studies, and Islam is one of the religious traditions she teaches her undergraduate students about, including Islamic conceptions of nature. C is not an Islamic Theologian but has a solid grasp on Islamic theology, and here provides the academic founding to this chapter. F and C met in 2009 when C was part of a small team of scholars researching diaspora communities’ connections to grown food (Light & Welch, 2018). During the food and diaspora project, C learnt about F’s personal connections with the natural world and saw how it tangibly connected her with her faith. However, with a focus on home-grown natural food, what fell outside the remit of the diasporic food project was Fahima’s enthusiasm for fell walking and mountain climbing in the countryside that surround her home in the north of England, and in natural areas beyond.

In this chapter, it is F’s experiences with the countryside that come to the fore and centre F’s engagement with the natural world. They are however, set into wider Islamic eco-engagement, both globally and locally in England, to ensure a fuller picture of people and place in Islam. The chapter deliberately includes the recent rise in publicity about Muslim’s consciously getting out into the British countryside in order to, quoting the tagline of MuslimHikers.com, ‘champion diversity outdoors’; with spaces and places in White majority countries dominated by the majority population, engaging with them as a person of colour, especially a person of colour of the non-dominant religion (in rural Britain this would be Anglican Christianity) such engagement is a soft political as well as a potent spiritual act. And to ground the spiritual side, this chapter also places F’s fell walking and other countryside pursuits within Islamic theology, and in particular Islamic environmentalism, arguably a tradition dating back to the reception of the Qur’an by Prophet Mohammed between 610 and 632 CE.

It is important to note that this chapter has an English focus in terms of personal Islamic engagements with the natural world, notably an adult female engagement. Explicitly stating this is not because Islamic engagements with the natural world are particularly country specific, but being a global religion, in some areas of the world, women’s engagement with public spaces is restricted; this is far more cultural than religious per se, and not all Muslim-majority countries restrict female access to the public square. Such restriction is not the case in England, although in 2021 the countryside charity, Council for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE), published their report ‘Access to Nature in the English Countryside’ which stated that for Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic people (BAME), the countryside can be a space of exclusion for people of colour. An in-depth exploration of the reasons for this is beyond the scope of this chapter, but there are Muslims actively breaking down barriers, such as Muslim Hikers founded by Haroon Mota (2021). This community organisation includes Muslims from all over England; men, women and children from diverse backgrounds and includes women in Hijabs (head-coverings) and Niqabs (face-coverings).

Mota’s idea for a Muslim walking group was sparked when in circa 2006, he was ‘very surprised’ to see women in Hijabs climbing Mount Snowdon, the highest peak in Wales located in Snowdonia National Park at 1085 metres (3560 ft) above sea level. It is of little surprise that he was taken aback, given that only one per cent of National Park visitors are from BAME backgrounds (Tailer, 2021). As the recent CPRE report states, in English countryside spaces, which are predominantly rural, close-knit, conservative and White (and we can add Anglican Christian in here), BAME people can feel ‘as if they are objects of curiosity’ (2021, 4), especially for Muslim women in hijabs or niqabs where National Parks and natural sites can be places of judgement rather than neutral spaces, or places for well-being, spiritual growth, and just ‘being’. However, some Muslims in England, including women, have quietly been engaging with the English countryside for many years and this chapter centres Fahima’s first-hand experiences as one of these pioneering British Hijabi hikers.

Before considering the experiences of F, and other female Hijabi hikers, exploring the nature-based ethos of Islam provides a religious and spiritual context for their stories because Islam is a way of life, with the Qur’an (the revealed word of Allah) at its core stating that the world, as Created (Fitra), should be cared for, protected and respected. It is important to note here though that the term nature is not theorised in this chapter. It is a contentious term (Ducarme & Couvet, 2020), but here nature is understood in the context of a non-urban space, typically a National Park or similar, not necessarily devoid of human habitation but slight in human population. It is, therefore, understood that a natural space is not an untouched wilderness, but a place cultivated by humankind (and indeed other-than-human kind), but largely full of natural stuff rather than cultural stuff. Further, the term Green in this chapter relates to environmentalism (Taylor, 2010) although it is often understood as the main colour associated with Islam.

Islam

Islam originated as a monotheistic faith in what is now northern Arabia as far back as the fifth century CE, and it is based upon the Qur’an, its holy book and the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed (c 570–632 CE). Within a few hundred years Islamic armies had defeated the Byzantine Empire in the eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Sassanians and had established a large area of control (caliphate) over what is now north Africa, western Asia, Arabia and eastwards into Persia and central Asia. Over time Islamic communities became established as far east as China, and along the east African coast. Islamic communities grew in southern Europe too (especially in Spain). Over the last four or five hundred years Islamic communities have grown up across the globe and are found on every continent. In sub-Saharan African Islam is the fastest growing religion. In the UK and Europe, many Islamic communities are a relatively recent historical phenomenon. In France, for example, many Muslims are diasporic descendants of immigrants from France’s north and west African colonies; in Germany, the mainly Turkish Islamic community has its origins in the Gastarbeiter (guest workers) who came as economic refugees from the 1950s. In the UK the majority of Muslims are descended from immigrants from the former West and East Pakistan (Pakistan and Bangladesh) from the 1960s. Muslims broadly belong to two main traditions, Sunni and Shi’a Islam but all Muslims express their faith through daily prayer, regular almsgiving and charitable works, cycles of fasting during holy festivals, and once in a lifetime go on pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. It is estimated that globally there are some 1.9 billion Muslims, or approximately a quarter of the world’s population.

12.2 Islam and the Earth: From Theology to Practices

There are over 750 Suras (verses) in the Qur’an that are related to the natural world. Some Suras are named after animals (The Ant; The Cow), others after natural events (The Thunder; The Night) and in some, natural phenomena start a Sura and work as an oath; for example, the first words of Sura 89:1 are ‘by the Daybreak’, and Sura 95:1 starts ‘by the fig and the olive’. Some Suras speak of the awareness that natural phenomena have of Allah, who created them; for example, Sura 17:44 states ‘and there is not a thing but that it glorifies Him with His praise but you do not understand their glorification’, and Suras 21:79 and 38:18 state that the mountains and the birds celebrate and praise Allah. For Muslims, the concept of Tahweed, the Oneness of God, is also the unity of all things and thereby ensuring the ‘right relationship of harmony, peace and justice’ with all things is an Islamic duty (Watling, 2009, 163); within Islam the whole of creation is Created with the ability to praise the Creator.

Praising God is central to the Islamic concept of the right relationship with Allah, and for humankind, to pray is a central Islam duty, with the Five Pillars of Islam specifying Salat (ritual prayer) five times each day. Before prayers, Muslims must do Wudu, a ritual washing with water. In Islam, water is understood as both ‘pure and purifying’ (Sura 25:48) so Wudu purifies the body enabling it to be ready for prayerful thoughts and deeds. But water is also understood to connect (unify) humanity with much of creation, and this Tahweed (unity) is specified in Sura 24:45 which states ‘God created from water every animal that goes on its belly, on two legs and on four legs’; humankind then shares its method of creation with non-humankind. Further, some scholars of Islam understand the references to water in the Qur’an as metaphors for the knowledge and wisdom that Allah has gifted humanity. This particular exegesis interprets Suras 67: 30 and 72:16, which speak of flowing water and abundant rain respectively, as metaphors for the gifts of knowledge and wisdom that Allah gave humanity who uniquely amongst Creation have free-will and therefore the choice to abide by or stray from Allah’s guidance (Shomali, 2008). As such the very act of Wudu can be seen to connect Muslim symbolically with other living beasts, and esoterically with the importance of learning (which increases human knowledge and wisdom), as well as it being an obligation before Salat.

Salat, the ritual prayer involves physical prostration, and thus a holistic submission, to Allah. Before mosques were created, and if mosques are not available, salat takes place outside on the earth/ground, and if water is not available for the purification of Wudu, then earth or earthy materials, such as sand, can be used in its stead. Earth as a substance then is more than just a place for prayer. Indeed, it is, along with water, the very stuff of creation. Sura 20:55 informs ‘from the earth We created you and into it We shall send you back and from it We will raise you a second time’. As such the substance of earth connects humanity directly with their birth, death and resurrection into Paradise. But the earth also is a place for humanity to cultivate (cultivate food, and from observing Creation to cultivate the mind), and from which to create places to live (Sura 11:61). But Muslims are required to cultivate and create responsibly, and are to take responsibility for the land, and the animals that use it (Shomali, 2008, 5). Indeed, there is a hadith, a saying of the Prophet Mohammed who received the Qur’an and is deemed to be the embodiment of a perfect human, that asserts that even if a Muslim thinks the Day of Resurrection is about to come, if they are holding a seed in their hand, they should still plant it. This hadith speaks to the importance of the natural world, but also relates to another hadith that states that if a Muslim plants a seed and a bird, animal, or person, eats from it, that is seen as a Sadaqah, a charitable gift (Iqbal, 2020). There is in both hadiths an understanding that planting is social good.

In theology then Islam can be seen as an inherently ‘Green’ religion. Indeed, green is the colour most associated with Islam and for Muslims the colour typically signifies prosperity and a good life. The earth was made green by Allah (Sura 22:63) and Paradise is conceived of as a green harmonious space full of plants and water. Further, lush gardens are a well-known feature of Islamic countries (Watling, 2009, 166) with their traditional geometry (which is also found in Islamic calligraphy and architecture) understood as an expression of God-consciousness (Ihan), symbolising beauty and virtue, and the glory of Allah. Many hadiths relate to greening the earth; planting a fruit tree, watering a date tree are encouraged, and planting and farming in general are seen as being the most pleasant human occupations (Shomali, 2008, 6). The earth and all that is in it, the Qur’an states, was created for humanity (Suras 2:29, 14:32–34, 16:10–14, 31:20, 45:12, 55:10) to ensure the ongoing everyday survival of humankind, but also for its beauty which reflects the glory of Allah (16:5–6, 22:5, 27:60, 50:7); it is important to state here that in Islam, as noted, although the earth is created for humans, they are to treat it well, and treating the earth appropriately is considered an act of faith (Bagnied, 2016). This in essence means that for humankind, along with the great benefits of being gifted a Created Earth, comes great responsibilities (23:71, 33:72), and one of these responsibilities is not to squander what was given (7:31, 17:26–27), not to destroy (2:205), nor to do ‘mischief on the earth’ (7:56). Muslims are explicitly called to be khalifah, responsible stewards of Allah’s Created world, and to live in balance (Mizan) with the Created world (Khalid, 2002: 338), and as such there is a deep and strong eco-theology embedded in Islam.

Islam’s explicit eco-theology is, as noted, based on the canonical sources of the Qur’an (Allah’s directions for humanity given to the Prophet Mohammed) and the Hadiths (the saying and doings of the Prophet that act as tools for understanding the Qur’an), and form the basis of any Islamic environmental action. Such action has been termed an eco-Jihad; Jihad simply means a struggle, or striving to do something, and Islamic-centric ecological living is not a simple pursuit (Amri, 2014, 75; 79; Denny, 2010; Foltz et al., 2003). However, Fazlun Khalid prefers the term Green Jihad (2016), with his organisation, The Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environmental Sciences, seeking to motivate and educate the Muslim world about their ‘responsibilities as guardians’ of Allah’s Creation (IFEES, n.d). Khalid stresses that Islam is an inherently environmental spiritual lifeway and Muslims have a duty to live a green Deen (Deen is the Arabic term for a way of life) and extends Islamic eco-theology to fully embrace Tawheed as incorporating all life and all life-supporting systems on earth. He states that as all life is composed of water, all life is intimately connected, and further as water operates in a closed-system, water used today may have been water used ‘by a Chinese farmer ten years ago, or…was the urine of an elephant in Africa 5 years ago’. Not only then do ‘we all share the same water’ (Khalid, 2016, 0.49–1.25 min) but that shared water is the very essence of all of us.

This shared relationship with the natural world has recently played out in the construction of an English Mosque. Opened in 2019 in Cambridge, the non-denominational Cambridge Central Mosque (CCM) had Islamic conceptions of nature, Khalifa and Mizan at its core with ‘rainwater harvesting, air-source heat pumps and photovoltaic [solar panels] to minimize its carbon footprint’ and speak to the ‘deep green (faith)’ that is Islam (en.shafaqna, 2019). The construction of such a place builds on decades of grass-roots English Islamic engagement with nature, conservation and sustainability, including the development of environmental groups locally, nationally (Gilliat-Ray & Bryant, 2010) and internationally (IFEES nd). But in England green mosques and green gardening have long been part of the Muslim response to the climate crisis (Gilliat-Ray & Bryant, 2011) and in 2011 construction started on the Hampshire Shi’a community’s eco-friendly, Wessex Jamaat Al Mahdi Centre (Wessex Jamaat Al Mahdi Centre, n.d). This building consciously incorporated both green gardening with eco-architecture ensuring the building was warmed with a deep piped natural heat source and lit through solar panels. As Abdul-Matin has argued, green mosques are central to opening Muslim hearts up to Tawheed (unity) Khalifah (stewardship) and Mizan (balance) (Abdul-Matin, 2014, 289).

However, the concept of a Mosque as purely a building for regular community prayer is a narrow one. The earth itself is understood as a place of prayer; with the Hadith by Abu Sa’id al-Khudri (1057:4) confirming this; al-Khudri ‘records the Prophet Mohammed saying: “Wherever you may be at the time of prayer, you may pray, for it [the earth] is all a masjid”… “the earth is a mosque”… “the mosque is sacred; therefore, the Earth Is sacred”’ (in Apotsos, 2021, 137). For Muslims then, engaging with nature is deeply significant and a way for Muslims to connect with, and even live out, their spiritual path (Deen), and so, to F and her Islamic engagement with the earth.

12.3 Islamic Engagement with the Earth: Personal Practices

F is a female Muslim hiker. Her first big hike took place in 1997 when she was working with a youth group; the bug for hiking bit. Since then, F has climbed many British mountains as part of walking, hiking and/or climbing groups that comprise groups of Muslim-only women as well as groups made up of male and female Muslims and non-Muslims, and in every one of the events, in both types of groups, she has found mutual emotional, mental and physical support. Of course, whilst outdoor activity is good for keeping fit and aiding general well-being, it is the spiritual side that touches F most. As she walks, F recites ‘SubhanAllahi wa bihamdihi subhanAllahil azeem’ (Glory is to Allah and all praise is to Him, glory is to Allah the great). This recitation is believed to have many spiritual benefits including bring the reciter closer to Allah and helping them clear sins and avoid evil, but recitation of this phrase is also considered ‘one of the greatest acts of worship’ (Qarabic, 2022). Walking in nature, reciting this verse, has helped Fahima deal with the grief of fractured relationships, of deaths in her family, and given her strength when life felt too tricky.

On one memorable occasion, on a winter family trek climbing up Mount Snowdon, she decided that, because it is a Sunna (an Islamic precedent) to walk back from the mosque a different way to the walk there, that it would be Islamically correct to walk back down Snowdon taking a different route. Having prayed in the snow at the summit already, some of the family decided, as the weather was poor, to walk back on a familiar path. But F and several others took up her challenge, and walked what turned out to be, a very difficult route back down. Their faith though gave them the courage to continue, and they eventually made it safely back. Faith too has played its part in her hikes during Ramadan where she has trekked in National Parks, and climbed a number of hills during the fast, not eating or drinking at all during the daylight hours. Although breaking the fast in wild places with her walking companions is a particular joy, she has found a very close spiritual connection to the nature world and Allah during Ramadan walks. It should be noted here that F would not suggest climbing Snowdon or engaging in similar strenuous activity during Ramadan without an appropriate level of fitness, and prior experience of arduous pursuits.

As noted previously, F has hiked and climbed as part of all-female Muslim groups, and she has found that these events connect her deeply to Islamic spirituality. One notable walk included her female companions praying on a mountain having first performing Wudu in a stream that ran down from its summit. On another hike, the experience was so moving for them all that one young member of the group shouted out ‘Amu tumake bhalo bashi’ (I love you, in Bangali) from the mountaintop. The group then drank chai tea from tartan thermos flasks and ate biscuits and Kendall Mint Cake, in a wonderful mash-up of traditional Asian and British culture.

With countryside walking and hiking often perceived of as a very British activity, sadly going by the abuse some BAME people experience in the countryside, it is also understood by a vocal minority as a thing that should only be undertaken by very British people (Harley, 2022). In an interview with Aysha Sharif, a British Pakistani who has hiked alone in the Lake District National Park, she notes that as brown women wearing her Hijab, she received comments from other hikers that the countryside and the towns surrounding it, that the space was not a place for people like her; something she has not found when hiking as part of a group (Davis, 2022). Amira Patel, who wears a Niqab, has experienced the same intimidation whilst hiking alone. In response, and in large part due to the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, she set up Wanderlust Women. Patel had started posting on social media to record her lockdown engagements with nature, and other Muslim women became interested in her activities and inspired by her confidence to be outside alone as a clearly observant Muslim woman.

Patel had previously set up a casual women’s walking group and had been taken out on hikes as a child by her mother (also Muslim women of colour), but Wanderlust Women goes beyond encouraging Muslim women to walk in wild spaces, to supporting Muslim women to engage in outdoor activities such as kayaking, cycling, gorge walking and rock climbing. These activities are untypical for Muslim women in England, but Patel argues that ‘it’s only after you’ve stepped outside your comfort zone that you begin to change, grow and transform’ (Patel, 2021). Like Fahima, she has broken her Ramadan fast with an Iftar meal outdoors and hiked during Eid; indeed, she states that she likes ‘to bring that faith part’ to engagements with the natural world as it is ‘a nice way to engage and interact’ (Patel in Lindon, 2021; Patel, 2021). It is clear that for many Muslim women, and indeed Muslims in general, being outdoors in nature, in places away from the hustle and bustle of daily life, is an authentic Deen, and given the eco-ethos of Islam, the countryside in general, and National Parks in particular, would do well to encourage more of this style of engagement.

12.4 Global Muslim Engagements with the Earth

Sadly, England is not alone regarding issues of countryside access amongst BAME people and its Muslim populations; America too has similar problems (Outdoor Foundation, 2021). However, just as in the UK, some Muslims in the US are seeking to address this issue by setting out into the great outdoors at home and overseas (Shervin, 2018). But as walking and hiking in natural spaces is not an option for every Muslim, this section of the paper will largely explore Muslim engagement with wider environmental issues. Eco-Islam is truly a globalised phenomenon (Schwencke, 2012) with many examples of green Jihad; green action that speaks to Khalifa, and Mizan. In some countries, eco-action is needed because climate change has, and continues, to fundamentally affect daily life. The Maldives is a case in point, as being low-lying, like Bangladesh, sea level rises are drowning useable land in these Muslim-majority countries (Atlantic Council, 2022). In the Maldives, environmental awareness and eco-care are embedded in the school curriculum (NIA, 2014), and education is a key principle in Islam. Indeed, as Mamoun Abuarqub notes in Islamic Perspectives on Education, ‘seeking education [in Islam] is obligatory’, and knowledge is considered to be a path towards greater closeness with Allah (2009, 7). Unsurprisingly then there are numerous educational programmes that engage Muslims of all ages with nature and environmental activism. ‘Green Muslims’ (Green Muslims, n.d) operates out of Washington DC and has the tagline ‘Living the environmental spirit of Islam’. The organisation is predominantly youth education focussed, but they also arrange hikes and engage in various recreational projects with the aim of inspiring young Muslims to understand the concept of khalifa and live a green Deen. In other parts of the world, there is a thriving Muslim permaculture movement with, ‘Greening the Desert’ operating in Jordan through ‘Muslim Aid International’, an Australian Muslim humanitarian-aid oriented NGO (Greening the Desert, n.d).

Permaculture is a way of utilising land which is ecologically sound, that is practical, sustainable and adaptable land use for people living anywhere they can grow produce, from city balconies through suburban allotments and community or educational spaces, to waste grounds and commercial premises. One of the aims of the Jordan project is to teach about permaculture use for arid areas, and with desertification one of the inevitabilities of climate change, this and similar projects are vital. However, they also speak to the nature-centric ethos of Islam. In seeking to green Jordan’s part of the Wadi Rum desert, this Muslim-majority country has a project by a Muslim charity that draws on Muslim environmental principles, and the Muslim concept of Rizq which, often translated as sustenance, can be understood as ‘anything that brings benefits or goodness’ (Ahmed, 2019). In years to come, what people learn from the ‘Greening the Desert’ project will enable more Muslims to live their Deen through permaculture and bring Rizq to those living in lands where drought effects food production.

This notion of an environmentally engaged Deen is evident if we return to the Maldives where contemporary reef management principles have been driven by the concept of Rizq. The Maldives are reliant on their reefs for fishing, and the protection from the ocean waves that the low-lying series of islands requires. The concept of Rizq (physical and emotional sustenance) includes that resources should be for all people rather than just the preserve of one person, and that any person seeking their own Rizq must do so in a lawful (Halal) respectful manner. Rizq in the Maldives extended then beyond the individual fishermen to ensure respect for the non-human reef dwellers, as fish and coral are as Created by Allah as is humanity. And whilst the world in Islam theology was/is Created for humanity, the concepts of Mizan and Khalifa must be respected in all actions. Mohammed, Gombay and Pirker assert that by bringing to the fore Muslim ways of engaging with the natural world, reefs like those in the Maldives can be saved from destruction (2019, 19). This application of reef management and Rizq was one that bore fruit in Zanzibar. Between 1999 and 2001 a project ran to bring Islamic environmental stewardship principles into marine conservation through, ‘an Islamic oriented education programme amongst …fishing communities, religious leaders and government officials’. This programme led to the enhanced management and protection of a marine conservation area, stopping the destruction of coral which was depleting fish stocks, and disturbing turtle nesting grounds (IFEES Zanzibar, 2021).

A similar concept has been used recently in Indonesia although with a focus on repurposing land known as Wadq. Wadq land is a charitably donated piece of land where there is no intention of reclaiming it. As Luik, Fatoni and Ahmad note it is land ‘still managed by traditional methods and bound to limited purposes, such as a mosques, graveyards, and madrasah’ (2021, 60). In Indonesia such land is often abandoned, yet could be used to help the earth, and communities, prosper through the implementation of permaculture. As noted previously the earth in all its richness is central to Islam, and within this understanding, human agriculture is an important, even blessed, occupation. In the Hadith of Bukhari 2320, Mohammed is cited as saying ‘there is none amongst the Muslims who plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, but is regarded as a charitable gift for him’ (in Luik et al., 2021, 62). And with paradise (Jannah) a lush garden of intertwining shady trees, flowing water and abundant orchards, permaculture can be seen to resonate intrinsically with Islam and concepts of a green jihad/eco-Jihad. With no monocultural crop techniques, no harmful chemical pesticides or fertilisers, and a community and social responsibility ethos, utilising Indonesia’s waqf land through permaculture practices, could assist with countering food insecurity and helping to green the country in a solidly Muslim way (Luik et al., 2021, 68). It should be noted however, that there are prohibitions on the use of graveyards beyond a place to bury the dead and commemorating them through graveside visits (Masjid al-Muslimiin nd). Additionally, it is highly unlikely many Muslims would wish to eat produce grown in such a waqf. However, other waqf spaces would provide useful productive ground in most Muslim-majority countries.

Wadq is not the only type of land suitable for permaculture. Islamic law divides land into three main categories: developed (Amir) land, undeveloped (Mawat) land and ‘protective zones’ (Harim). Although a somewhat simplistic explanation, the basic rule is that undeveloped land belongs to whoever brings it to life by one of the following methods: putting a hedge or wall around the land, irrigating dry land or draining wetland, digging a well, clearing the area of trees, breaking up stones, and levelling the ground, ploughing the land, planting crops or trees on it and/or erecting a building on it. Harim land is land which forms a protective zone, of any size, around every development.

The use of Harim land is forbidden to anyone but the owner. And a Hima is an area of undeveloped (Mawat) land that has been set aside for some reason, and often functions as a conservation area or wildlife reserve (Khalid, 2002, 336). It may be that permaculture might be suitable for Amir land with community groups taking the lead, and even some Harim land could be utilised in this manner if the owner were willing. However, a green Deen can extend to small individual acts such as those in the Lifemakers/IFEES guide that note everyday ways Muslims can help tackle climate change (IFEES, n.d). From eating locally produced produce to reduce food miles, minimising food waste, having showers rather than baths to save water and turning off lights to save power are all practical ways that Muslims can authentically engage with and respect the earth. Living out a green Deen can be expressed in actions big and small; it is taking those actions that is important.

12.5 Conclusion

Islam is not only a theologically environmentally connected religion, but many Muslims find ways to live out their faith through environmental action, or an eco-or green Jihad. The concept of Rizq has helped ensure reefs are protected and as such not only are the livelihoods and habitats of humans protected, but the habitats of sea creatures are too. The concept of Tawheed is pertinent here, the unity between Created things through the substance of water. But humankind and non-humankind are also theologically connected through earth, and as such Islamic permaculture embodies Rizq through ensuring all can benefit from produce grown in the earth. Utilising Waqf spaces for growing crops assists here too. As such in using the Created earth responsibility, Muslims live out their role of Khalifa of the planet. And on an individual level, as Fahima and the other Muslim walkers, hikers and followers of outdoor pursuits have demonstrated, being authentically Muslim in the landscape embodies a green Deen, with not even the daylight fast of Ramadan stopping some from engaging in countryside activities, and indeed for many, this can deepen their spiritual engagement with nature.

This chapter has demonstrated that for Muslims, natural spaces are imbued with religious significance. Rather than exploring theory, theology can be a way into understanding how people and place connect, and this stands for most people of faith, or with a spiritual lifeway; there are many books and academic articles on this topic with a wealth of information on from everything the global doctrinal religions to local traditional spiritual lifeways. Islam is a global religion, doctrinally focussed but also a spiritual way of life, and as such taking care of, being Khalifa for, the earth plays out in different ways in different countries. But from large NGO projects to everyday domestic acts, Muslims can authentically live a green Deen.