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Countering Terrorism Propaganda Online Through TERREG and DSA: A Battlefield or a Breath of Hope for Our Fundamental Human Rights?

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The Legal Challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (ICLCFIR 2022)

Part of the book series: Law, Governance and Technology Series ((LGTS,volume 57))

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Abstract

This chapter explores the freedom of expression risks entailed in recent EU regulatory initiatives aimed at countering terrorism propaganda online, through the Regulation on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online (‘TERREG’) and the Digital Services Act (‘DSA’). After analysis of the complementary nature of these instruments, the rule of law risks under lex specialis, namely TERREG, are exposed. As argued, these risks result from, inter alia, hosting service providers’ likely use of automated tools and the lack of judicial oversight, which is further exacerbated by the cross-border nature of removal orders and the lack of definitional clarity surrounding what constitutes ‘terrorist content’. By contextualizing these risks and mapping out the regulatory initiatives that preceded these Regulations in the field of terrorism propaganda online, important improvements in relation to privatised enforcement risks are highlighted.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    European Commission (2022) Digital Services Act: Commission welcomes political agreement on rules ensuring a safe and accountable online environment. https://ec.europa.eu Accessed 8 August 2022.

  2. 2.

    European Commission (2020) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Single Market for Digital Services (Digital Services Act) and Amending Directive 2000/31/EC6. COM (2020), 825 final, Art. 1 (5) sub (d) jo. Rec. 9.

  3. 3.

    Ibid., explanatory memorandum, p. 4.

  4. 4.

    This statement was made by European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen when announcing the political agreement reached on 23 April 2022. https://ec.europa.eu Accessed 8 August 2022.

  5. 5.

    Coche (2018).

  6. 6.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., Rec. 4.

  8. 8.

    Ibid., Rec. 5.

  9. 9.

    Ibid., Art. 12 jo. 3 & Art. 5.

  10. 10.

    Ibid., Art 5.

  11. 11.

    EU Directive 2017/541 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2017 on combatting terrorism and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA and amending Council Decision 2005/671/JHA.

  12. 12.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Art. 3 (1) sub. a-j.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., Art. 1(3) jo. Rec. 12.

  15. 15.

    Handyside v UK (App no 5393/72) ECHR, 1976, para. 49.

  16. 16.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Rec. 11.

  17. 17.

    European Commission (2020) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Single Market for Digital Services (Digital Services Act) and Amending Directive 2000/31/EC6. COM (2020), 825 final, Art. 1(5) sub. (d) jo. Rec. 9.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., explanatory memorandum, p. 4.

  19. 19.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Rec. 12.

  20. 20.

    Ibid., Rec. 14.

  21. 21.

    European Commission (2020) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Single Market for Digital Services (Digital Services Act) and Amending Directive 2000/31/EC6. COM (2020), 825 final, Art. 2 (f).

  22. 22.

    Ibid., Art. 2 (g) jo. Rec. 12.

  23. 23.

    EU Directive 2018/1808 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 November 2018 amending Directive 2010/13/EU on the coordination of certain provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Member States concerning the provision of audiovisual media services directive (Audiovisual Media Services Directive) in view of changing market realities, Art. 6.

  24. 24.

    Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008 on combatting certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law.

  25. 25.

    Ibid., Art. 1 (a).

  26. 26.

    European Commission (2017) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council and the Council. Eight progress report towards an effective and genuine Security Union. COM (2017), 354 final.

  27. 27.

    Ibid., p. 3.

  28. 28.

    Surek v Turkey (No 1) (App no 26682/95) ECHR, 1999.

  29. 29.

    Piazza (2022).

  30. 30.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Rec. 1.

  31. 31.

    Jersild v Denmark (App no 15890/89) ECHR 1994; Handyside v UK (App no 5393/72) ECHR, 1998, para 49.

  32. 32.

    Hertel v Switzerland (App no 59/1997/843/1049) ECHR, 1998, para 46; Animal Defenders International v the United Kingdom (App no 48876/08) ECHR, 2013, para. 100.

  33. 33.

    Kruslin v France (App no 11801/85) ECHR, 1990, para. 27-36; Sunday Times v UK (App no 6538/74) ECHR, 1979, para. 45.

  34. 34.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Rec. 23.

  35. 35.

    Council of Europe (2014), p. 10.

  36. 36.

    Ibid.

  37. 37.

    Access now et al. (2021) Dear Member of the European Parliament. https://dq4n3btxmr8c9.cloudfront.net/files/nS1GUt/MEP_TERREG_Letter_EN.pdf Accessed 8 August 2022.

  38. 38.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Art. 3 (7).

  39. 39.

    Ibid., Art. 5 (4).

  40. 40.

    Ibid., Art. 5 (2).

  41. 41.

    Ibid., Art 5 (3) sub d.

  42. 42.

    EDRI (2021b) European Parliament confirms new online censorship powers. https://edri.org Accessed 8 August 2022.

  43. 43.

    Surek v Turkey (No 1) (App no 26682/95) ECHR, 1999, para. 62; Gokceli v Turkey (App no 27215/95 and 36194/97) ECHR, 2003, para. 38.

  44. 44.

    Allan (2017) Hard questions: Who should decide what is hate speech in an online global community? https://about.fb.com Accessed 8 August 2022.

  45. 45.

    Ibid.

  46. 46.

    Access now et al. (2021) Dear Member of the European Parliament. https://dq4n3btxmr8c9.cloudfront.net Accessed 8 August 2022.; Chee (2021) Civil rights groups urge EU lawmakers to rebuff online terrorist content law. https://www.reuters.com Accessed 8 August 2022.

  47. 47.

    Macdonald et al. (2019), pp. 183–197.

  48. 48.

    Ibid., p. 194.

  49. 49.

    Debre and Akram (2021) Facebook’s language gaps weaken screening of hate, terrorism. https://apnews.com Accessed 8 August 2022.

  50. 50.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Art. 5(3) sub d.

  51. 51.

    Solon (2017) Underpaid and overburdened: The life of a Facebook Moderator. https://www.theguardian.com Accessed 8 August 2022.

  52. 52.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Art. 4 (7).

  53. 53.

    Kuczerawy (2018).

  54. 54.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Art. 13 (1).

  55. 55.

    Access now et al (2021) Dear Member of the European Parliament. https://dq4n3btxmr8c9.cloudfront.net Accessed 8 August 2022.

  56. 56.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Art. 3(9).

  57. 57.

    Cres-Terminal et al. (2021) Lettre commune appelant à voter contre le règlement de prévention de la diffusion de contenus à caractère terroriste en ligne. https://www.ldh-france.org Accessed 8 August 2022; Conseil Constitutionnel (2020) Décision n 2020-801 DC du 18 juin 2020 https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr Accessed 8 August 2022.

  58. 58.

    Conseil Constitutionnel (2020) Décision n 2020-801 DC du 18 juin 2020, para. 7.

  59. 59.

    Cres-Terminal et al. (2021) Lettre commune appelant à voter contre le règlement de prévention de la diffusion de contenus à caractère terroriste en ligne. https://www.ldh-france.org Accessed 8 August 2022; EDRI (2021b) European Parliament confirms new online censorship powers. https://edri.org Accessed 8 August 2022.

  60. 60.

    Euractiv (2021) EU adopts law giving tech giants one hour to remove terrorist content. https://www.euractiv.com Accessed 8 August 2022.

  61. 61.

    EDRi (2021a) EU terrorist content online regulation could curtail freedom of expression across Europe. https://edri.org Accessed 8 August 2022.

  62. 62.

    Art. 4 (3) uses the word ‘may’ and Art. 4(4) introduces a ‘right’.

  63. 63.

    Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008 on combatting certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law.

  64. 64.

    European Commission (2014) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Preventing Radicalisation to Terrorism and Violent Extremism: Strengthening the EU’s response. COM (2013), 941 final, para. 8.

  65. 65.

    European Commission (2015b) Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on combatting Terrorism and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on combatting terrorism. COM (2015), 625 final, para. 10.

  66. 66.

    EU Directive 2017/541 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2017 on combating terrorism and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA and amending Council Decision 2005/671/JHA, Rec. 22.

  67. 67.

    European Commission (2015a) EU Internet forum: bringing together governments, Europol and technology companies to counter terrorist content and hate speech online. https://ec.europa.eu Accessed 8 August 2022.

  68. 68.

    European Commission (2016a) EU internet forum: a major step forward in curbing terrorist content on the internet. https://ec.europa.eu Accessed 8 August 2022.

  69. 69.

    European Commission (2016b) The EU code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online. https://ec.europa.eu Accessed 8 August 2022.

  70. 70.

    Christchurch call (2019) https://www.christchurchcall.com Accessed 8 August 2022.

  71. 71.

    European Commission (2019) Fighting terrorism online: EU internet forum committed to an EU-wide crisis protocol https://ec.europa.eu Accessed 8 August 2022.

  72. 72.

    European Commission (2018) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on preventing the dissemination of terrorist content online. COM (2018), 640 final, explanatory memorandum, para. 3.

  73. 73.

    Ibid., explanatory memorandum, p. 6.

  74. 74.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Rec. 5.

  75. 75.

    Council of Europe (2014), p. 88.

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Angelopoulos et al. (2015), p. 6.

  78. 78.

    Macdonald et al. (2019), p. 185.

  79. 79.

    The EU Code of Conduct on countering illegal hate speech online, the Communication and Recommendation on tackling illegal content online.

  80. 80.

    Coche (2018).

  81. 81.

    See Sect. 2 of this chapter.

  82. 82.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Rec. 6.

  83. 83.

    Coche (2018), pp. 10–11.

  84. 84.

    Article 19 (2021) EU Regulation of Notice and Action procedures in the Digital Services Act. https://www.article19.org Accessed 8 August 2022.

  85. 85.

    European Commission (2018) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on preventing the dissemination of terrorist content online. COM (2018), 640 final, explanatory memorandum, para. 6.

  86. 86.

    Ibid., pt. 3.

  87. 87.

    EU Regulation 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online, Art. 21.

  88. 88.

    EU Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., Art. 14 jo. Rec. 46.

  90. 90.

    European Commission (2012) Commission Staff Working Document, online services, including e-commerce, in the Single Market Accompanying the document: Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, A Coherent framework to boost confidence in the Digital Single Market of e-Commerce and other online services. SEC (2011), 1641 final, pp. 43–46.

  91. 91.

    Coche (2018), p. 7.

  92. 92.

    United Nations General Assembly, Human Rights Council (2011) Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to freedom of Opinion and Expression (A/HRC/17/27), para. 45 jo. 75.

  93. 93.

    Kuczerawy (2015), p. 48.

  94. 94.

    European Commission (2012) Commission Staff Working Document, online services, including e-commerce, in the Single Market Accompanying the document: Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, A Coherent framework to boost confidence in the Digital Single Market of e-Commerce and other online services. SEC (2011), 1641 final, pp. 43–46.

  95. 95.

    Judgment of 12 July 2011, L’oreal SA and others v Ebay International A.G. and others, C- 324/09, EU:C:2011:474, para. 111–116.

  96. 96.

    Kuczerawy (2018).

  97. 97.

    Van Hoboken et al. (2018), p. 42.

  98. 98.

    Judgment of 16 February 2021, Sabam v Netlog, C-360/10, EU:C:2012:85.

  99. 99.

    Iris Malone (2022) Will the EU’s Digital Services Act reduce online extremism? https://www.justsecurity.org Accessed 8 August 2022.

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  1. Amsterdam Business School, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Eugénie Coche

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  1. Centre for Research in Private Law – CIDP, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Dário Moura Vicente

  2. Portuguese Military Academy and Centre for Research in Private Law – CIDP, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Sofia de Vasconcelos Casimiro

  3. Centre for Research in Private Law – CIDP, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

    Chen Chen

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Coche, E. (2023). Countering Terrorism Propaganda Online Through TERREG and DSA: A Battlefield or a Breath of Hope for Our Fundamental Human Rights?. In: Moura Vicente, D., de Vasconcelos Casimiro, S., Chen, C. (eds) The Legal Challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. ICLCFIR 2022. Law, Governance and Technology Series, vol 57. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40516-7_16

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