Keywords

1 Introduction

The unlocking of Africa’s most underutilised and untapped resources can be achieved by addressing widespread gender disparities in the areas of economy, training, governance, and leadership (Fernández et al., 2021; Mojapelo & Faku, 2019). Women comprise at least nearly half of the agriculture-based economic workforce in many African countries (ILO, 2014; Campaign, 2014). Despite their contributions, women in agriculture face challenges such as the lack of formal agreements and guaranteed wages, leading to disparities in wages and resource access (Mojapelo & Faku, 2019). The gender wage gap results in many women being employed in low-wage, low-productivity jobs, either as self-employed individuals or as household contributors to the household income (Fernández et al., 2021). Transitioning to a green economy and empowering women requires green competencies and a precision mindset (Maclean et al., 2018). As women become more empowered, Africa’s significant resources will be unleashed (Nhamo & Mukonza, 2020). Gender equality and women’s empowerment are critical components of greening economies for long-term poverty alleviation and economic growth (Nhamo & Mukonza, 2020). It is crucial to incorporate the inclusivity of women in the development of a green economy that promotes people’s welfare and equitable development through the creation of quality green jobs (Babugura, 2020).

Understanding the concept of a green economy is essential to grasp the importance of gender and women’s empowerment in the context of green jobs and green skills. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) describes a green economy as “one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities” (Environment for Europe Ministerial Conference (2011)). A “green economy” does not supplant sustainable development, but an increasing number of people appreciate that attaining sustainability hinges on making the correct economic decisions. The model of the green economy is driven by resource efficiency that encompasses skilled and technical human competencies and capacities (Pavlova, 2018). In more precise terms, “resource efficiency” refers to the ability to enhance output while using fewer resources—whether material or non-material. Green economies must meet this efficiency requirement, but more fall short in certain instances owing to variations in resource utilisation as exemplified in many countries.

Green economy transition and resource efficiency can be achieved by reskilling women, ensuring ecosystems remain stable and functional (ecosystem resilience). Also of relevance in this regard is discovering ways to optimise resources in the production and consumption of goods whilst mitigating associated environmental impacts. Africa holds a vital female labour workforce that could triple its productivity through enhanced green reskilling. This perspective is captured in the works of Potokri (2022), who argues that women in Africa must develop sustainable skills in the wake of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) or face the danger of being isolated in the emerging world of work. Climate change unlocks opportunities for women in key sectors of the African economy through sectoral, green-based jobs. Green-centric sectors, such as agriculture, manufacturing, energy, production, and processing, necessitate skills domiciled in technical green competencies.

The effects of climate change on Africa’s women labour market are still largely unresolved, notwithstanding the demand for information generation and dissemination and the escalating body of research and reports from governmental, corporate, and non-profit organisations on gender-related issues (Glazebrook et al., 2020; Martinez-Fernandez et al., 2010). There has been a rise in interest in “green growth paradigm” theories as an alternative model of economic growth, especially in the wake of the climate crisis (Unay-Gailhard & Bojnec, 2019). Therefore, this study elucidates the following: green growth as a concept, green skills and green jobs, sectoral green jobs and women’s empowerment, green economy transformational training, and green competencies and climate action. The study further identifies potential opportunities that gender and green economy paradigms offer to counter proliferating climate change consequences. Thus, the study shows the importance of reskilling women with green skills that will create opportunities in the era of climate change in Africa.

2 Green Growth and Gender Inclusivity Concept in Africa

The concept of green growth has picked up pace globally as an approach to ameliorating consequential ecological impacts. In 2012, at the Rio+20 Summit, the concept of “inclusive green growth” was first introduced as part of ecological civilisation (Sun et al., 2020); Similarly, the World Bank (2012) defines green growth as “a system that is efficient in its use of natural resources, clean in that it minimises pollution and environmental impacts, and resilient in that it accounts for natural hazards.” It is imperative to solve the worldwide environmental issues that affect society. However, ecological and environmental conservation is concerned with the well-being and growth of humans. For the sake of protecting the environment, preservationists worry about waste, degradation, and the loss of habitat. The green growth model attempts to bring together industrialised and developing countries’ interests in green growth and equitable development subject to the identifiable categories of African countries (Bouma & Berkhout, 2015).

The effective utilisation of Africa’s resources should incorporate green growth principles to address the persistent gender divide in resource access. Despite progress made since the adoption of the Beijing Declaration, Africa continues to have high levels of gender disparity and poverty (Ezenwa-Onuaku, 2020). The success of green economy initiatives in various African countries shows its potential for rural areas, but the challenge lies in how to effectively integrate the green growth paradigm into rural Africa, where many women require these products (Ngondjeb et al., 2020). It is essential that green growth initiatives take into consideration the specific needs and challenges faced by rural women, and design programmes and policies that empower and uplift them.

Crafting visionary green strategies and policies as a premise for gender and green growth inclusivity in Africa is paramount. These policies should reflect the roles of both genders and identify aspects where women’s empowerment through participation and engagement in green growth initiatives takes precedence. Ideally, there needs to be a balance between rigidity and adaptability in green growth plans, as well as between practicality and enforcement (Kararach et al., 2018). Overall, these gender discrepancies should highlight the need for a sustainable and equitable green economic model for both genders. Social policies and community-based initiatives are crucial social drivers, particularly for rural communities that host marginalised groups, including women. Green fiscal interventions could help combat rising rates of involuntary joblessness by committing to reskilling women in the green sectoral business cycles and labour supply interaction.

3 Green Skills and Green Jobs for Women Empowerment in Africa

Pre-existing societal inequities, including gender inequality, are predicted to be exacerbated by climate change in the global south, where gender policies are still on the back burner (Ahmed et al., 2022). However, green skills that enshrine inclusivity could cushion such gender disparities in the emerging economies of sub-Saharan Africa. Accelerating the shift to a greener era, a greener process is being promoted by both advanced and emerging countries and thereby increasing focus on ecologically sustainable growth models associated with a more manageable carbon footprint. Women’s education, skill building, and the cultivation of talent are all levers that can hasten and strengthen this transformation process to a green economy (Maclean et al., 2018).

There is an increasing demand for green skills, but many firms are not communicating this reality. Rather, men and women are being segregated in the workplace, and as such, the demand-driven skills matrix may not unfold appropriately. Organisations lack sufficient knowledge of the green skills they need and the effects of the green economy in the domains of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (the STEM skills) (Kwauk & Casey, 2022). Since their business models are predicated on future-focused environmentally friendly market dynamics, it is highly probable that they will incorporate green capabilities. Certain low-carbon industries, such as carbon sequestration, nuclear power, and renewable energy, have already analysed the future demand for employee skills and balanced women’s inclusion. However, other green industries are not getting the same level of research attention.

The reskilling of women in Africa should consider key foundations of green economy skill base models that include skills supporting climate resilience, skills on the management of natural assets, skills that support resource efficiency, and skills that support the low-carbon industry (Table 1). In terms of global economics, the green economy represents a paradigm shift (Karimi et al., 2022). Africa’s focus must be adjusted significantly for this to happen. Accepting this shift is challenging, but it is essential if we are to meet the Global 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals. Therefore, it is crucial to prioritise empowering women by nesting gender equality as a global goal both in skill and technically enabled mindsets in African economies (Table 2).

Table 1 Green and gender-inclusive skills
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Table 2 Digital green skills
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3.1 Green Jobs

Green jobs and related work activities aim to protect the environment and specifically combat climate change, through energy and raw material conservation, promotion of renewable energies, waste/pollution reduction, and biodiversity and ecosystem protection (Dell’Anna, 2021). Decent labour, offered by green-based industry models, ensures access to basic social services, a living wage, safe and fair working conditions, recognition of gender and employees’ rights, and input into choices that directly influence women. “Skills for green jobs” are commonly understood to include all the abilities required to carry out the duties associated with green jobs and those that can be utilised to improve the environmental friendliness of any given occupation (Gregg, 2017). This depiction encompasses eco-friendly practices but also brown sectors (which include activities like mining, oil drilling, and material manufacturing).

Green jobs are also an essential weapon in the fight against unemployment, such that green activities are a priority for legislators in many nations and areas throughout the world (Rutkowska-Podołowska et al., 2016). These activities have the potential to be implemented in virtually every sector of the economy, contributing to sustainable development and ultimately greening the economy. Green jobs for African women being offered in select industries are compatible with the female gender needs. Green employment opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa will be created across a variety of industries, with the highest number being added by the energy, construction, and agricultural sectors. In recent times, the number of women joining the agricultural workforce in Africa has grown. Green job development is projected to increase in the majority of African countries, where women are disproportionately represented.

In addition to more traditional technical and generic abilities, green expertise has been acknowledged as a crucial knowledge base. Companies are seeking employees with the generic and technical skills as well as the green capabilities essential for structural reform in the environmental, social, and economic spheres. Technical and generic skill versatility is a requisite for transitioning to green jobs across all sectors. Economic reorganisation and employment changes result from the transition to a green economy and green job creation. As the nature of work evolves and changes, so do the skill sets that employers consider integral to the performance. To guarantee that layoffs are minimised and impacted individuals obtain retraining, it is essential to assist businesses in adapting to change and provide current and potential employees with suitable skills. Therefore, it is essential to be proactive in positioning for future skill requirements.

4 Green Economy and Transformation Gender Mainstreaming in Africa

The world’s ecosystems and rural settlements or communities are threatened by unprecedented levels of climate change, refugee crisis, pandemics, and ecological degradation. This has a disproportionate impact on the poor, especially the most marginalised members of this population. Global Agenda 2030 SDG 5 aims to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls by the year 2030. According to the United Nations (UNDP, n.d.), women are often the most acutely affected by the repercussions of climate change. This is due to a combination of reasons, the most prominent being discrimination and language hurdles. Also, because of their vital reproductive roles, women are primarily reliant on climate-vulnerable means of subsistence. The World Bank (2012) notes that social programmes that specifically target women have greater returns on investment and more rapid reductions in poverty, contrary to the alternatives that isolate women.

The transition to a green economy, which aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection, presents both challenges and opportunities (Ngare et al., 2022; Kasztelan, 2017). While a green economy can lead to investment, growth, and job creation in relevant industries, it also requires developing new skills and adapting existing workers to the changing job market. The greatest challenge lies in ensuring that the workforce has the necessary skills to participate in the green growth model and perform tasks related to the creation of transformative green jobs. However, with adequate training and a focus on gender for transformative change, the benefits of a green economy can be fully realised.

Creating sustainable and gender-inclusive green jobs requires a focus not only on specific gender-based skills but also on a profitable economic model. According to Pollin (2019), on green work and decent work studies, economies should emulate sustainability embedded in transformative skills:

The idea that building a green economy should be a source of job creation should be intuitive, even though it is frequently portrayed as a job killer. This is because building the green economy necessarily entails building — it means large-scale new investments to dramatically raise energy efficiency standards and equally dramatically expand the renewable energy supply. Spending money on virtually anything will create jobs. The only relevant question should then be how many jobs get created through building a green economy, and correspondingly, how many jobs will be lost through the contraction and eventual dissolution of the fossil fuel infrastructure. (Pollin, 2019)

Women are viewed as agents of change in emerging global economies with immense potential to upscale Africa’s labour pool (Rosca et al., 2020). However, to capitalise on these women’s potential, reskilling and upskilling are required in major climate-sensitive sectors in Africa (energy, forestry, agriculture, and water), which account for the majority of GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions. Therefore, the green economy perspective holds that achieving gender parity and empowering women and girls are necessary conditions for ending global inequality. In the same vein, Principle 20 of the Rio Declaration (United Nations, 1992, p. 6) affirms the importance of women in environmental management and development. Moreover, since future generations will also need resources, women need to take an active role in achieving green growth-driven sustainable development in Africa (Nhamo & Mukonza, 2020).

Taking climate action necessitates green mindsets and gender-empowered initiatives that take into account women’s participation and inclusivity in developing countries (Acosta et al., 2020). For instance, the gender responsiveness tool has been increasingly well received in the global south to leverage climate change financing initiatives like the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and Adaptation Fund. Women are empowered with green financing training to unlock resource potential in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The Green Climate Fund (GCF) prioritises the needs of women and girls with regard to funding for climate change mitigation projects and implements the UNFCCC’s (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) objectives. Gender mainstreaming in climate change plans and practices at the domestic level has been reinforced by the preference of most national transformation initiatives to access climate change finance from GCF (Ampaire et al., 2020).

5 Constraints in Green Reskilling of Women for Climate Action in Africa

Gender mainstreaming and climate change action through a transformative reskilling approach in Africa is constrained by the following:

Green economy is a novel, vast, unclearly defined, and unstructured sector—The United Nations Environmental Programme’s (UNEP) description of “green economy” is perhaps the most generally used and accepted that incorporates resource efficiency, reduction of carbon emissions, and enhanced energy efficiency models. According to the UNEP,

a green economy is defined as low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive. In a green economy, growth in employment and income is driven by public and private investment into such economic activities, infrastructure and assets that allow reduced carbon emissions and pollution, enhanced energy and resource efficiency, and prevention of the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. (UNEP, n.d.)

However, green economy is still a new notion that relates to a combination of existing and growing industries, issues, ideas, and concepts (European Union, 2016). Most assessments concentrate on one or a few of these themes, with a disproportionate number focusing on energy, mobility, industry, and the utilisation of natural capital, with less emphasis on gender dimensions or dynamics. However, very few enquiries adopt a more comprehensive approach, spanning multiple concepts. This explains why there are presently no effective national green economy evaluations and relatively sparse research efforts in the aspect of green resource utilisation.

Lack of coherent framework on women’s green reskilling to advance the green economy—Recent studies are generated in response to a pressing need or a policy dilemma concerning this narrow niche of the green economy and gender, a process known as “bottom-up” assessment. Because of the breadth and depth of the notion, it is uncommon to find assessments that are part of a coherent “top-down” integrated framework on women’s inclusion through reskilling and upskilling.

6 Conclusion

Green employment refers to positions in a specific subset of businesses that deliver environmental advantages. Policymakers would achieve their objectives if they considered the broader issue of how policies address environmental externalities, such as how anthropogenic climate change can affect employment rather than domiciled gender shifts. This multiplier approach has an impact on job creation, particularly because of how gender segregation impacts policy and hence employment creation. While green growth strategies are rarely explored, they may have unforeseen repercussions for employment costs and workers’ productivity. Job markets operate differently across economic systems, and this should be taken into account, particularly in African countries where economic prospects are contested, and unskilled women outnumber the skilled ones. Under these conditions, both green economic growth and job creation are achievable. However, this raises challenges, particularly for African countries whose industrial expansion plans have relied on access to low-cost carbon-based energy sources, which undermine climate action. Changes in the structure of the economy should be followed by proactive labour market reforms on gender and women’s green reskilling.

Africa’s plan to recover from economic setbacks includes retraining its workforce to meet the demands of the future workplace. Therefore, African governments should increase their initiatives to retrain and reskill the labour force on a consistently incremental basis. This could help cushion the effect on African citizens exiting defunct sectors with unreliable economic productivity output. The need to ensure that women in different regions in Africa have equal opportunities to pursue green careers is incontrovertible. Also, gender-inclusive policies are instrumental for a gender-responsive green economy thereby eliminating the structural hurdles faced by women to participate in the green employment market. Consequently, it is opined that there should be concerted efforts at removing all forms of gender bias structures across the legal and corporate processes whilst addressing all manifestations and effects of exclusionary societal norms.

7 Recommendations

To eliminate gender discrimination in the workplace and ensure equal opportunities for women to access green jobs, a combination of education programmes, mentorship by female role models, and support systems for both genders in male-dominated domains is recommended. It is critical to rapidly advance towards a shared conceptualisation of the green economy in terms of gender, workforce, and learning industrial processes. Immediate and long-term actions are required to ensure that the green economy transition does not disproportionately impact women.

To ensure that women have an equal share of green job opportunities, both the public and private sectors in Africa must establish gender-inclusive policies and programmes. Reskilling and upskilling of African women through sustainable and structural retooling are recommended for a transformative green economy. This will require targeted training and capacity-building programmes addressing women’s needs and challenges.

In conclusion, recognising and addressing gender disparities in the green economy is essential to achieving a truly sustainable and just transition. Taking concrete steps towards gender equality and empowerment can create a more inclusive and resilient green economy while also unlocking the full potential of women as drivers of economic growth, agents of positive change for the environment, and key actors in climate action. By empowering women with the knowledge, skills, and resources they need to participate fully in the green economy, we can create a more sustainable and resilient future for all.