Keywords

1 Introduction

Digital technologies have become ubiquitous in daily life, and this trend has been globally exemplified at an accelerated rate in recent decades. From portable devices such as smartphones and tablets to cutting-edge technologies like clean energy technologies, telehealth, education technology (Edtech), artificial intelligence (AI), and blockchain, these technologies offer numerous benefits, including the ability to communicate and exchange information, achieve personal goals, and address the pressing issue of climate change (Nkoumou Ngoa & Song, 2021; Cleantech Group, 2022). Notably, digital technologies are increasingly playing a critical role in addressing global challenges such as climate change. Clean technologies, such as solar and wind power, are reducing our reliance on fossil fuels and helping to mitigate the impact of climate change. Similarly, blockchain technology is utilised to create more sustainable supply chains, while AI is leveraged to optimise energy consumption and reduce carbon emissions.

However, access to these technologies remains unequal, with a significant proportion of the population, particularly women, being left behind (Fulufhelo & Shumani, 2020). Closing the gender gap in technology usage is crucial for promoting socio-economic empowerment for women. Despite some progress in recent years, with the global gender parity score increasing from 0.89 in 2018 to 0.92 in 2020, according to the ITU (2021), the stakeholders need to intensify efforts to achieve equal access to the opportunities presented by digital technologies.

The African continent faces significant challenges in closing the gender gap and ensuring equal access to advanced technologies, such as cleantech, telehealth, edtech, blockchain, and artificial intelligence. Despite some progress in reducing digital disparities, women in the world’s poorest regions, such as Africa, still face limited access to information and communication technologies (ICT), which hinders the numerous possibilities in this regard. The gender divide is particularly significant in the least developed countries (LDCs), where only 19% of women have access to the internet, compared to 31% of men (ITU, 2021).

However, there have been promising developments in Africa as internet use in the region increased by 23 percent between 2019 and 2021 (ITU, 2021). This indicates that African countries are starting to recognise the crucial role that ICT plays in facilitating development. For women, these digital technologies hold enormous potential for empowerment. They can create direct employment opportunities, make labour markets more flexible, lower production costs, and provide new investment opportunities for women, as well as increase their participation in the cleantech industry (Nkoumou Ngoa & Song, 2021; Raja et al., 2013; Suhaida et al., 2013; Future Africa, 2020).

In essence, while digitalisation has enormous potential to improve people’s lives and address the impacts of climate change, it is crucial to address issues of access and gender equality to fully realise its benefits. Given the potential of these technologies to empower women and mitigate the impacts of climate change, this chapter aims to explore the importance of using digital technologies to address the challenges posed by climate change to African women.

2 Cleantech, Women, and Climate Change

The impacts of climate change, such as alterations in precipitation, sea level rise, and global warming, require immediate and sustained action to mitigate and adapt to their consequences (Cumming et al., 2016). The cleantech industry is one solution to the challenges posed by climate change, as it is primarily focused on developing clean technology (Cleantech Group, 2022). The four main sectors of cleantech are minerals, water, transportation, and energy; this includes projects like biofuel, green transportation, recycling, green energy, and renewable energy (Cumming et al., 2017). The industry also encompasses energy storage, air and environment, and nuclear energy (Cumming et al., 2016).

Women are already playing a crucial role in the transition to clean energy and promoting responsible production and consumption practices, including a culture of circularity, in various countries as producers, consumers, and designers (Dolun et al., 2021). Women can also drive change through their influence on consumer spending, promoting responsible practices across different levels of the value chain. However, there is still a need for greater gender inclusion in the cleantech sector. The Green Climate Fund has committed to promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment through its gender policy, which seeks to increase inclusivity in decision-making and governance structures within its funded projects (Acanjo, 2020).

In East Africa, over $100 million has been invested in training women to become solar technicians and supporting female-led microfinance groups focused on renewable energy (Acanjo, 2020). Additionally, female entrepreneurs are leading the way in developing energy-efficient solutions, such as Ugwem Eneyo’s firm SHYFT, which provides smart energy technology to consumers in Nigeria to manage distributed energy sources (Future Africa, 2020). These efforts to increase women’s participation in the cleantech industry are crucial for mitigating the effects of climate change and promoting environmental sustainability.

Access to clean technologies is crucial for both well-being and gender equality, particularly in the context of climate change. Climate change exacerbates the existing disparities in energy access, particularly for women disproportionately affected by its impacts (OECD, 2020). Addressing the issue of gender disparity in energy is vital to achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7, which is clean and affordable energy for all. Women have the potential to play a crucial role in mitigating climate change by becoming active consumers and producers of clean energy. The more off-grid energy solutions become available, the more women can participate in the energy transition as consumers and entrepreneurs.

Women are increasingly entering the renewable energy and cleantech industries, providing innovative solutions to address climate change challenges. Cleantech cooperatives offer women opportunities to participate in the entire value chain, from production to consumption. For example, the Solar Mamas programme, present in many African and Latin American countries, uses sign language and colour coding to educate women on generating energy and installing lighting systems (UN, 2021). Another initiative, Solar Sister, focuses on cultivating women’s entrepreneurship skills to increase access to off-grid energy solutions and clean cooking in underprivileged communities in sub-Saharan Africa (UN, 2021). These programmes not only empower women as cleantech entrepreneurs and consumers but also support their development as leaders and agents for a transition towards cleaner and smarter societies (UN, 2021). They provide education and training in clean energy solutions and cultivate entrepreneurship skills to increase access to off-grid energy and clean cooking in underprivileged communities in sub-Saharan Africa.

3 Telehealth, Women, and Climate Change

Telehealth is a critical tool for delivering healthcare services and lowers the constraints associated with traditional face-to-face meetings. It encompasses various technologies and methods for connecting patients with healthcare providers to enhance personalisation, effectiveness, and security in health information sharing. Telehealth can provide timely and appropriate health interventions to specific patients through channels such as live videos, mobile health, store-and-forward, and remote patient monitoring (Sundstrom et al., 2019). Additionally, it is important to note that climate change is a significant factor that affects healthcare delivery globally. For example, extreme weather events caused by climate change can disrupt transportation systems, making it challenging for patients to access healthcare services promptly. Telehealth can help mitigate the impacts of climate change by providing an alternative means of accessing healthcare services and improving the resilience of healthcare delivery systems.

Women have unique health needs due to biological and cultural factors and are major beneficiaries of healthcare services (Koc et al., 2022). Telehealth offers personalised healthcare services that could particularly benefit African women. For example, telehealth has improved access to contraception services for women in disadvantaged communities or rural areas (Sundstrom et al., 2019). Furthermore, telemedicine, telepsychiatry, and online therapy have been shown to reduce the fear of cancer relapse, depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, and distress (Koc et al., 2022). Telehealth services are also linked to healthier dietary habits and monitoring and evaluation of the health of mothers and children (Ruiz et al., 2020). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, telehealth has become more crucial for providing safe and effective healthcare (Fryer et al., 2020). The implementation of virtual healthcare reduces the risk of COVID-19 exposure and promotes social distancing by reducing in-person consultations (Fryer et al., 2020; Drury & Lazuardi, 2021).

It is also important to note that climate change affects African women’s health in many ways. For instance, natural disasters and extreme weather events caused by climate change can disrupt healthcare delivery systems, making it difficult for women to access healthcare services. Climate change also increases the risk of vector-borne diseases, which can have a disproportionate impact on women, particularly in African regions where they have limited access to healthcare services. In this context, telehealth can play an important role in improving access to healthcare services for African women despite climate change-related disruptions. Telehealth has the potential to support the current health systems and ameliorate the situation for women, such as with the telehealth application named ePartograph in Zimbabwe, which is designed to monitor the process of childbirth. Despite the progress that telehealth is making in Africa, it is important to consider the multi-dimensional impacts of climate change and take such into consideration regarding the development and implementation of domestic telehealth solutions.

Telehealth can generate benefits geared towards the empowerment of women and simultaneously contribute to address specific global climate change concerns. According to the World Financial Review (2021), telehealth offers three major benefits: convenience, healthcare, and personnel who can attend to a larger number of patients, which reduces the need for patients to travel and thus reduces their carbon footprint. This innovation is cost-effective, as the remote monitoring dimension increases patient engagement. In effect, there is a gradual de-emphasis on physical visits, which lowers greenhouse gas emissions attributable to transportation. Telehealth provides women patients with the opportunity to schedule a suitable time to converse with their healthcare provider and avoid scheduling blunders, common clinical roadblocks, and staffing challenges, helping to reduce waste and lower emissions associated with healthcare.

A study by Kruse et al. (2020) highlights the convenience of telemedicine, which enables patients to access healthcare in a seamless manner that minimises conflict with established work schedules. This initiative can provide healthcare services to female patients in both rural and urban settings, helping to reduce the need for travel and lowering their carbon footprint. The use of telehealth is associated with an increase in positive health outcomes more frequent consultations, reducing the need for additional, unnecessary visits and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.

4 Edtech, Women, and Climate Change

Edtech refers to systems designed to enhance classroom learning and improve students’ academic performance (Frankenfield, 2020). Technology in the education system has experienced two major waves of utilisation. The first wave is the introduction of hardware into the classroom. The second wave entails the integration of software to coordinate and ensure the proper use of the hardware (Williamson, 2021). These software solutions are known as edtech. Most of these are cloud based and make use of various algorithms to enable students to achieve learning goals (Frankenfield, 2020; Williamson, 2021). Proponents of edtech accentuate the enhancement capabilities of technology and software, thus enabling the teacher to transition into more of a facilitator role. Due to time constraints, it can be difficult for teachers to educate based on a curriculum, be at pace with slower learners, and still keep the class engaged in their studies. Edtech can improve students’ academic performance by automating the assessment of learning ability and adjusting difficulty levels (Bettinger et al., 2020; Frankenfield, 2020).

It is important to note that education systems must also consider the pressing issue of climate change in the design and implementation of edtech solutions. Climate change will impact every aspect of our lives, and students need to be equipped with the knowledge and skills to tackle this global challenge. Hence, edtech solutions should aim to incorporate education on climate change and sustainable development.

Global spending on edtech as a percentage of total spending on education is still relatively small (estimated at 4% as of 2021), and it is predicted to rise to 10% in the next decade (Bouhaj, 2021). The edtech sector in Africa is also expected to grow to about $57 billion in 2030. This is a massive improvement from the $3 billion spent currently on edtech, but it will only be a small proportion (below 10%) of global edtech expenditure (Bouhaj, 2021). Different edtech companies in Africa have emerged, such as uLesson, Valenture Institute, and Fuzu, which shows how quickly the sector is developing in the continent. However, the sector is still relatively small compared to other continents and regions (Bettinger et al., 2020).

Organisations such as African Women in EdTech (AWE) aim to build a learning community that will mentor African women working in or pursuing careers in the edtech sector (Wake, 2022). This organisation has four main focus areas: resilience, recovery, teachers, and equity (Wake, 2022). Resilience entails enabling African countries to develop effective hybrid educational systems. Recovery deals with how countries can recover learning loss and personalise education with digital technology. Teachers focus on changing roles and gaining new skills to fully leverage edtech systems. Lastly, equity focuses on how nations can influence open technology systems to widen access to quality educational content and learning experiences, including education on climate change.

According to UNESCO (2020), not up to 40% of nations provide equal education access to boys and girls, contributing to the gender gap in education and perpetuating inequalities. The traditional modes of teaching are evolving into online learning, which offers a pragmatic solution to the gender gap in education and can play a role in addressing climate change. Online learning eliminates the need for physical transportation to and from school, reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation and promoting sustainable practices. Edtech has enormous potential as a catalyst for women’s political, educational, and socio-economic empowerment, and the promotion of gender equality. According to Doshi (2018), edtech can bring about the empowerment of women by providing access to a wide range of options for quality education; elimination of gender bias; employment through the use of technology; sharing of opinions, ideas, and knowledge; as well as access to vital information covering topics such as health, agriculture, politics, and the economy.

M-learning can also facilitate women’s education through the use of a mobile phone, eliminating the need for physical textbooks and reducing paper waste, contributing to a more sustainable future. Women learners can have access to information through both formal and informal means, making it possible for anyone anywhere in the world to learn without being confined within the walls of a classroom, reducing the need for transportation, and thus reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

5 Blockchain, Women, and Climate

Blockchain is a novel form of technology whose potentials remain largely untapped and are still being harnessed (Makala & Anand, 2018; Thylin & Duarte, 2019; Evans & Oni, 2022). Generally, blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that allows for a complex range of technological interactions between persons without the validation and confirmation procedures provided by trusted intermediaries (Audia, 2018; Thylin & Duarte, 2019). Blockchain technology also provides users with the ability to generate and maintain undisputable and secure personal records (Skogvang, 2018). The ledger of records, or blocks, that constitute a blockchain and the information shared are secure so that the same transaction history is accessible to everyone in the blockchain network. Blockchain has been utilised for various purposes, such as digital finance, cross-border transfers, grant management, micro-insurance, and organisational governance (Coppi & Fast, 2019).

Despite the vast applications of blockchain, financial asset transfer is usually discussed as an area in which blockchains can play a vital role (Thylin & Duarte, 2019; Coppi & Fast, 2019). Women in the least developed and some developing countries are bearing the brunt of conservative lending activities, with small women-owned firms experiencing difficulties obtaining credit needed for business expansion (Lawal et al., 2016). However, despite the technology and bitcoin industry being stereotyped as a “boys club,” a growing number of women are entering the industry and growing to different levels of influence (Kamath, 2018).

The marginalisation that many women have faced in Africa for centuries through economic exclusion, gender-based violence, limited involvement in politics, and unequal access to education has enabled blockchains to appeal to a variety of African women (Msoh, 2020). For them, these technologies represent the hope that African women can be free from financial constraints and limited opportunities. For example, Kenya’s Roselyn Gicira leads blockchain innovation and its use in the country and is also the chairperson of the Blockchain Association of Kenya. In addition, through the Kenya Women in Blockchain Chapter, Gicira aims to integrate more women into the blockchain industry (Msoh, 2020). In Nigeria, Doris Ojuedeire has made efforts to promote blockchain technology and also include women in other African countries (Msoh, 2020). Industry leaders such as these are making tremendous efforts to increase the inclusion of women in the blockchain industry.

However, with the pressing issue of climate change, it is crucial to consider how blockchain technology can be utilised to mitigate its impact. Blockchain-based solutions can be used to track the supply chain of goods, promoting transparency and accountability in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the promotion of environmentally friendly practices (Thylin & Duarte, 2019). Moreover, blockchain can also help create a carbon credit marketplace, where organisations can offset their carbon footprint by purchasing carbon credits from environmentally friendly projects (Makala & Anand, 2018). Hence, the blockchain industry must strive to be not just inclusive of women but also environmentally responsible, as it plays a vital role in addressing the challenge of climate change.

Access to productive resources, including financial services, is critical in reducing gender inequality and addressing climate change (Hammond & Brown, 2018). Blockchain technology has the potential to advance finance and identification services and contribute to gender equality. For example, the SPENN case in East Africa offers a digital wallet that allows users to receive, save, spend, and transfer funds securely and efficiently, enabling women to have greater control over their finances (Lopez et al., 2019).

Moreover, blockchain technology can empower women by providing secure and cost-effective means of storing personal records, contracts, and payments (Sharma, 2018). Women in developing countries often face challenges in accessing financial services, such as high maintenance costs or minimum account requirements, but with blockchain, opening a cryptocurrency wallet comes with zero costs (Sharma, 2018). Storing contracts on the blockchain eliminates the possibility of document falsification, and facilitating payments through the technology is convenient, especially for those without bank accounts. By enabling secure financial transactions and access to personal records, blockchain technology can help women overcome some of the financial barriers they face and contribute to their empowerment, ultimately supporting the fight against climate change.

6 Artificial Intelligence and Women

Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly affecting the choices and behaviour of people in everyday life (Leavy, 2018). AI, which is defined as machines that imitate cognitive functions, is one of the most important applications of modern technology (Mesko & Gorog, 2020; Evans & Oni, 2022). Some new developments in AI involve machines with learning capabilities, allowing them to generate programmes and insights based on their ability to process large amounts of data (Samuel et al., 2018). It is also a tool for social good and a contributor to mitigating climate change, as UNESCO (2020) outlined ways in which AI would help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including reducing the impact of human activities on the environment, predicting natural disasters, and protecting endangered species. These applications of AI have implications for addressing climate change (SDG 13).

To realise the benefits AI has to offer, including its impact on addressing climate change, gender equality is vital. However, the field of AI is largely male dominated, with only 12% of AI researchers globally being women (Toews, 2020). In recent years, AI has faced criticism for exhibiting gender and racial biases in systems such as facial recognition and loan, job, and other evaluations (Daugherty et al., 2018; Samuel et al., 2018). To ensure gender equality in AI, it is necessary to employ more women in important roles such as development and coding and to make AI systems more inclusive (UNESCO, 2020).

However, several brilliant African women are at the forefront of AI technology and are working to reduce these biases. Joy Buolamwini’s work on algorithmic bias has raised awareness of facial recognition systems and aims to achieve women’s inclusion in AI through her non-profit organisation (Toews, 2020). Other African women in IT, such as Lily Botsyoe, assert that AI technologies can also empower women in Africa by helping communities overcome a shortage of healthcare personnel and increasing production through automated technologies (Toews, 2020). Inclusivity in AI is crucial not only for gender equality but also regarding the potential to address the negative impacts of climate change and delivery of the SDGs.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has the capability, similar to blockchain, to promote women’s empowerment while also contributing to the fight against climate change. AI can play a crucial role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, optimising energy usage, and enhancing renewable energy deployment. For example, AI algorithms can be used to control energy usage in buildings and homes, making them more energy efficient and reducing their carbon footprint. Additionally, AI can be applied to the transportation sector to improve the efficiency of vehicles and reduce carbon emissions from the transportation sector.

One way of promoting women’s empowerment through AI is in the area of employment. According to Rubin et al. (2021), artificial intelligence can assist in eliminating gender bias from the recruitment process and also reconcile the issue of gender pay gaps. This can be done using the Natural Language Processing (NLP) engine, where the potential employee and employers are matched based on skills, experience, and the number of accomplished projects. However, it is also important to ensure that the development and deployment of AI systems are inclusive and consider the perspectives and needs of all genders, including women, to ensure that they are not disadvantaged or excluded. Moreover, artificial intelligence can empower women to obtain relevant self-help information, through the use of interactive communication as well as autonomous applications (Women in AI & Vinnova, 2020). In this case, an AI-based system can assist women in comprehending more effectively and making better decisions related to climate change, such as reducing their carbon footprint and adopting more environmentally friendly practices. The potential for women’s empowerment in Africa through artificial intelligence is high, and it is essential to harness this potential in the fight against climate change.

7 Conclusion and Implications for the Future

The integration of emerging digital technologies into the lives of women can play a key role in mitigating the impact of climate change. For example, telehealth can provide women with access to medical services eliminating the need for long-distance travel, which helps to considerably lower transportation carbon footprint. Similarly, clean technology and education technology can empower women with the tools and knowledge to live sustainably and support the shift towards a low-carbon economy. Additionally, blockchain and artificial intelligence can help reduce waste by promoting transparency in supply chains and improving energy efficiency across various industries.

Furthermore, women tend to have a stronger sense of empathy and responsibility towards society, including environmental protection. Therefore, empowering and including women in the fields of clean technology, telehealth, education technology, blockchain, and artificial intelligence can bring a unique and valuable perspective to the fight against climate change. Additionally, advanced digital literacy, combined with women’s strong social skills, can lead to innovative solutions that address environmental challenges and drive sustainable development.

To ensure women can participate fully in these efforts, it is crucial to address gender gaps in access to digital technologies and STEM education. Affordable access to clean technology, telehealth, education technology, blockchain, and artificial intelligence should be prioritised in policymaking, and women should be encouraged to study STEM-related fields to increase their employment opportunities in the IT industry and their ability to contribute to the global conversations on the myriad of climate change issues.

Overall, promoting gender equality and addressing climate change are interdependent, and gender-responsive policies and investments that aim to include women in the digital revolution and the low-carbon transition are crucial to achieving both Sustainable Development Goals 5 (Gender equality and women empowerment) and 13. Providing access to these technologies for women is not just a matter of social justice, but also a critical component of a sustainable future for all. Policy efforts to eliminate gender gaps in clean technology, telehealth, education technology, blockchain, and artificial intelligence can not only create job opportunities for African women but also allow them to access global markets and reduce their economic vulnerability, as well as play a vital role in combating the critical challenge of climate change.