Keywords

1 Introduction

Climate change is one of the most significant challenges facing humanity due to its detrimental effects. One of the United Nations’ 2030 Sustainable Development Goals is to combat the global impacts of climate change. Changing climatic conditions affect over 100 million people globally, exacerbating the gender poverty gap across nations and continents (Ray, 2021). Developing nations and continents lacking relevant institutions and strategies to mitigate these fatal outcomes, such as Africa, are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change, resulting in increased death rates, disease outbreaks, and property loss from events such as floods, droughts, and devastating storms. According to the World Meteorological Organization’s 2020 report on the state of the climate in Africa, the continent’s climate is characterised by rising temperatures, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events, which increase the associated risks of global warming (WMO, 2020). Therefore, it is crucial for Africa to establish appropriate measures to mitigate the continuous depletion of the ozone layer, particularly to protect women, who are the most vulnerable population (Ray, 2021).

Abating poverty and hunger, and making efforts to combat climate change and its effects are three principal aims that the global community has been devoted to in achieving the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. These three objectives are very crucial as the population is predicted to rise in later years. According to Lipper et al. (2014), an extra 2.4 billion people are estimated to be inhabiting developing economies in 2050 (especially the economies in sub-Saharan African countries and South Asian countries). Moreover, in these economies, agriculture is a vital source of livelihood, but over one-fifth of the global population is observed to be food insecure on average (Lipper et al., 2014). Efficient agricultural processes are, therefore, a significant factor that can be used to eradicate hunger, poverty, and malnutrition. However, climate change could be a hindrance to agricultural growth in certain regions, especially in developing economies (Asfaw & Branca, 2017).

Climate-smart agricultural practices have been adopted in African countries to address the problems of land degradation and desertification. These projects aim to improve food security, enhance timber production, and lower crops and livestock vulnerability to climate change (Barasa et al., 2021). Reforestation helps lower climate change risks by reducing wind speeds and consequently minimising the harm done to crops. For example, in Mali, Senegal, Ethiopia and Niger, farmers have undertaken extensive reforestation and greening efforts, resulting in significant environmental improvements, particularly in the Sahel region (Nyasimi et al., 2014). This outcome was achieved through improved feed and livestock manure management, as well as shifting to species that are resilient to illness and drought (World Bank et al., 2015).

These climate-smart technologies are beneficial to women, specifically regarding their contribution to agricultural productivity and food security, which have been widely recognised in developing nations (Khatri-Chetri et al., 2020). In recent decades, research and development efforts in the global south have emphasised cardinal issues affecting women in agriculture, such as increased access to factors of production, prominence in policymaking, and greater participation (Khatri-Chetri et al., 2020). Notably, several studies have established the nexus between gender, social, and economic dimensions in the agricultural sector (Khatri-Chetri et al., 2020; Peterman et al., 2014). However, the efficiency of CSA in terms of its advantages to both men and women can be impaired if the gender gap in the agriculture sector persists (Nelson & Huyer, 2016). This chapter, therefore, discusses the potential of climate-smart technology in improving women’s empowerment in Africa and ultimately improving food security in the continent.

2 Climate Change as a Challenge to Agriculture in Africa

Climate change is a principal challenge for domestic agricultural sectors and connected international supply chain networks. The impacts of climate change are increasing globally, especially among producers in developing nations whose livelihoods are significantly affected by volatile climatic conditions. Its effects are also being observed in crop and livestock production, particularly in Africa, south of the Sahara, where the dramatic rise in temperatures and varying rainfall patterns are expected to lower crop yields (Bryan et al., 2016). According to Abegunde et al. (2019), temperatures in the continent are projected to increase at approximately 1.5°C, higher than the 1951–1980 temperatures, until 2050 and remain at that level until 2100 in the scenario of a low-emission setup. In the case of a high-emission setup, sub-Sahara African temperatures are expected to increase by 5°C higher than the 1951–1989 baseline by the end of the century (Abegunde et al., 2019). A decline in rainfall, as well as an increase in the frequency of floods and drought, is also expected to occur (Nyasimi et al., 2014).

Recent impacts of climate change, such as a tree density reduction in the western Sahel region and the receding of glaciers in East Africa and Asia, have also been observed, indicating the increasing potency of climate change (Field & Barros, 2014). The climate change effects on the global agricultural system are predicted to be accompanied by a population boom and a change in consumption patterns (Abegunde et al., 2019; Harvell, 2002). It is estimated that the global population figures will rise to as high as ten billion by 2050 (Serdeczny et al., 2016). This requires a significant agricultural transformation to guarantee adequate food supplies for rising demand.

A major portion of the expected rise in the global population by the end of the century is predicted to come from Africa. These projections also show that Africa will be highly impacted by the varying climate conditions and a transition in the agricultural system. Arable farmland is expected to reduce by 110 million hectares by 2080 in developing countries, while accessible land for crop production expansion in sub-Saharan Africa is expected to decrease due to moisture limitations and rising variability (Abegunde et al., 2019). Moreover, Africa has been observed as a region profoundly associated with climate change due to excessive dependence on rain-fed agricultural systems.

Food security and the mitigation of hunger are at the greatest risk because of different factors such as climate change uncertainties, land degradation, market fluctuations, and incremental population growth (Barasa et al., 2021). Several African countries have adopted strategic propositions for implementing climate-smart agricultural technologies to solve the challenges regarding agricultural productivity. It is envisaged that this will increase food productivity, build pliability to climate change, and reduce the impact of greenhouse gas emissions (Barasa et al., 2021).

The effects of both past and future climate change on cereal crop output in different parts of the world amount to a loss in crop output of up to 20% for wheat, 35% for rice, 60% for maize, 13% for barley, and 50% for sorghum depending on time, geographical location, and climate projections (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017). Climate change could affect agricultural output in the form of variations in crop cultivation appropriateness, the pervasiveness of diseases and pests, and a decreased input use efficiency (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017). Climate change is evolving as one of the main threats to overall development in Africa, especially within the agricultural sector (Nyasimi et al., 2014). Temperatures are expected to increase in several African regions (North Africa, West Africa, Southern Africa, and Central Africa), while rainfall is expected to drop in 2050 (with East Africa being the only exception). Increasing temperatures could adversely affect aquatic and coastal habitats, bringing about a reduction in crop farming, especially in maize (Nyasimi et al., 2014). These predictions have prompted a global transition to climate-smart agriculture (CSA), and its advantages have been recognised by various institutions, researchers, and policymakers (Barasa et al., 2021).

3 Climate Change as a Challenge to Women Smallholder Farmers in Africa

Leaders worldwide have pledged to reduce chronic malnutrition in children under five by 40% by 2025 (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2019), but progress has been slow due to limited impact of nutrition-specific interventions (Jones et al., 2019). In Africa, malnutrition remains a challenge, with a higher incidence of stunting and a serious malnutrition issue for the adult population (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2021). Agriculture has gained interest as a way to mitigate malnutrition risks, with initiatives like Leveraging Agriculture for Nutrition in East Africa and Agriculture to Nutrition in place to explore the relationship between agriculture and nutrition and address political, knowledge, and resource challenges. Though efforts have been made to advance the agriculture-nutrition relationship in Africa, more effort is required on the spill-over effect of gender equality (SGD 5) in the agricultural sector and the effective mitigation of climate change risks.

In the literature, the empowerment of women and the development of agriculture are two of the underlying determinants of nutrition, especially child nutrition (Carlson et al., 2014). More importantly, women’s empowerment is observed to interact with the agriculture-nutrition linkage in specific respects (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2012). Firstly, women’s agricultural occupation could increase their bargaining influence within a household. Evidence implies that women are more inclined to spend income on nutrition enhancement (Gillespie et al., 2019). Consequently, the higher bargaining power of women could lead to a higher resource allocation for nutrition (Bryan et al., 2016). Higher bargaining power could also contribute to increased nutrition by enabling women to negotiate healthcare access for themselves and their children (Bryan et al., 2016).

Mitigating the impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector is focused on reducing the emission of greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide. The sustainable intensification of existing arable land is a fundamental way of achieving the reduction of greenhouse gases through the decrease of land cover change (Wollenberg et al., 2011). The negative impact of climate change shocks can also be reduced through adaptation efforts, which could vary from minimal to significant changes in the approach that can lead to a transformation in agricultural systems (Sani et al., 2016). This method requires creating an ecosystem that promotes resilience, specifically crops and livestock with greater tolerance for flood, drought, and heat (Sani et al., 2016).

Certain strategies have been adopted by smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa to address variability in climate. In areas with low precipitation, farmers substitute the farming of crops with high water requirements with the farming of crops with low water requirements (Abegunde et al., 2019). In regions with frequent flooding, farmers plant short-cycle crops and have varied planting times to evade periods of heavy rainfall. Furthermore, in Southern Africa, where there is severe water strain, farmers make use of water conservation mechanisms, including irrigation, wastewater reuse, and water harvesting (Makate et al., 2018; Mango et al., 2018). It is evident that without these measures, agricultural activities will be characterised by higher risks due to climate change.

Small-scale farming by women plays a vital role in the provision of food and employment in several African countries (Abegunde et al., 2019). Many sub-Saharan African households are dependent on smallholder farming for food and income (Gollin, 2014). Although many female farmers conduct agricultural activities on uneven portions of land, they remain important to food production and are, thus, an important part of the African community. Despite the vast potential of smallholder farming by women, it faces certain barriers that lower its efficacy in abating the problems of poverty and insecurity. These farmers are highly vulnerable to varying climate conditions, making climate change one of the most profound threats that smallholder farmers face on the continent. These risks and poor agricultural practices have led to reduced soil fertility and, thus, low farm output (Ngwira et al., 2013).

4 Adoption of Climate-Smart Technologies in Africa

The threats associated with climate change and variability cannot be overemphasised, particularly in the agriculture sector, which is the mainstay of African economies, accounting for most livelihoods across the continent (WMO, 2020). These risks are becoming more severe as the environment is exposed to rising temperature levels. Decreased crop yield, disease damage, and flood impacts on food systems are major risks to agriculture (Barasa et al., 2021). Hence, the need to design an agricultural system that would increase food production at all levels despite climate changes. This necessitated the introduction of CSA as a sustainable approach that aids the transformation of agri-food systems towards green and climate-resilient practices (FAO, 2022). The three core objectives of CSA include sustainable improvement of agricultural production and incomes, adaptation and resilience development to climate change, and reduction and elimination of greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2022; Adesipo et al., 2020).

CSA refers to innovations that aim to help communities and countries adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change while also achieving sustainable development and food security. CSA technologies include the use of conservation agriculture, agroforestry, intercropping, agroecology, small-scale irrigation, livestock diversity, soil/water conservation and nutrient management, landscaping, mulching, minimising tillage and breeds, amongst others (Senyolo et al., 2018; Chandra et al., 2018). Notably, CSA is context specific depending on the socio-economic, environmental, and climate change factors prevalent in a geographical location (FAO, 2022). Extant literature indicates that these CSA technological practices have been tested in various African economies (Barasa et al., 2021).

For instance, an integrated soil fertility management framework, such as mixing organic and mineral fertilisers to improve maize yield, was used in Kenya (Paul et al., 2020), Nigeria (Hammed et al., 2019), and Uganda (Rware et al., 2020). There is also evidence from the use of soil conservation and multiple stress crop practices in Ethiopia (Makate et al., 2018), Ghana (Bashagaluke et al., 2019), Mozambique (Thierfelder et al., 2016), Nigeria (Oladimeji et al., 2020), South Africa (Ighodaro et al., 2020), and Zimbabwe (Setimela et al., 2018). The result was a huge increase in the variety of drought-resistant maize yields, which enhanced the overall income of small-scale farmers, as well as smallholder households (Barasa et al., 2021).

The World Bank views CSA as a viable means towards achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) (World Bank, 2015a). To improve food security, most developing nations are seeking various ways to develop low-cost and dependable weather monitoring and forecasting systems that can be integrated with advanced smart technologies (e.g., remote sensing, IoT-based sensors, agricultural drones, and biosensors) (Adoghe et al., 2017; Tenzin et al., 2017). Regarding the adoption of CSA practices in Africa, FAO recommends its implementation through five action plans, which are (1) Expanding the evidence base for CSA; (2) Supporting enabling policy frameworks; (3) Strengthening national and local institutions; (4) Enhancing funding options; and (5) Implementing CSA practices at field level (FAO, 2022).

Overall, there is a slow adoption rate of CSA technologies in Africa; this is evidenced by a World Bank report indicating that only 26% (14) of all 54 countries in Africa possess a CSA country profile, despite its numerous benefits (Basara et al., 2021). The 14 countries are Kenya, Ethiopia, Benin, Cote d’Ivoire, Senegal, Tanzania, Rwanda, Lesotho, Mozambique, Malawi, Gambia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Uganda (Basara et al., 2021). Highlighting some of the early adopters, in Lesotho, for instance, there is the Lesotho Climate-Smart Agriculture Investment Plan (CSAIP) and the Machobane Farming system (MFS). The Lesotho CSAIP focuses on resilient landscape and commercialisation, such that the former is a combination of a local farming system and modern scientific knowledge. MFS, on the other hand, involves the use of intercropping, crop rotation, and relay cropping to apply plant ashes and manure to conserve the moisture of the soil, thereby improving soil fertility to be highly resilient to climate change (World Bank, n.d.). To sustain these gains and further promote climate-smart agriculture CSA, the government of Lesotho, launched the Smallholder Agricultural Development Project (SADP), a comprehensive programme backed by the World Bank and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). SADP aims to enhance climate resilience, drive commercialisation, and boost nutritional diversity, in line with the World Bank’s global CSA scaling efforts and knowledge-sharing initiatives (World Bank, n.d.).

Further, there is the Malian CSAIP developed by the World Bank, which relies on an existing framework to create programmes, policies, strategic plans, and establishments, either at the local, national, or international levels. Mali set up actions necessary for the improvement of crop resilience (Basara et al., 2021). CSAIP (2015–2030) was also established in Kenya to meet the three pillars of a CSA approach: increased productivity, adaptation, and mitigation across production systems (Barasa et al., 2021).

The Kenya CSAIP (2015–2030) was developed to organise local and international CSA interventions aimed at addressing the socio-economic challenge. Some of the challenges faced include the fact that the majority (74%) of the Kenyan population were rural dwellers, with 11 million people actively engaged in primary production agriculture, and about 24% of the population not properly nourished (FAO, 2015; World Bank, 2015b). Interestingly, several initiatives in Kenya have attributes of CSA but are not referred to as CSA, and they are not recognised from the perspective of climate change (Osumba & Rioux, 2015). Nevertheless, incorporating CSA concepts into existing practices in Kenya will be less problematic due to the existence of an applicable framework (Barasa et al., 2021).

The adoption of CSA in Lesotho has led to a decrease in soil erosion and has enhanced biodiversity in the country (World Bank, n.d.). The CSAIP was also utilised in Mali to increase crop and livestock resistance to climate change impacts (Basara et al., 2021). Furthermore, Sustainable Rice Intensification (SRI) has been viewed as a climate-smart alternative in almost 20 African nations, with more than four million farmers benefiting from the initiative since 2013 (Zougmore et al., 2018). Climate Information Services is also a vital climate-smart option for farmers in Africa. Findings from Senegal and Ghana illustrate high potential in ameliorating the adaptive capacity of small-scale farmers to climate change risks. Through collaboration between meteorological agencies, ICT service providers, and scientists, farmers can access authentic information and reliable forecasts. For instance, in Ghana, weather forecasts and audio messages on smart agricultural practices are sent to farmers in their preferred language (Zougmore et al., 2018). The benefits of the existing CSA projects show the potential of large-scale CSA adoption with regard to the improvement of the agricultural outlook and mitigation of climate change in Africa.

5 Gender and Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa

A large percentage of the world’s poor are women (WMO, 2020), who are also the most vulnerable victims of unpredictable weather events (World Health Organization-WHO, 2014). In Africa, where social infrastructure is most impoverished, the outcomes are more devastating. Malnutrition, malaria, displacement of homes and families, loss of material possessions, and death mostly affect women of low social status and economic means. This tragic reality will only worsen in the coming decades as millions become increasingly incapable of protecting themselves against natural disasters attributable to climate change.

The studies on climate change and gender infer that the methods by which gender connects with pliability and vulnerability to climate change are very specific and contextually driven, notwithstanding the appearance of certain behavioural commonalities (Bryan et al., 2016). The perception of climate change is an important requirement for taking action, as are the forms of response options. For instance, in Nigeria, men are observed to be more concerned with the effects of climate change on the output of legume and tuber crops, while women were seemingly more concerned about a reduction in the availability of seeds, fruits, and herbs from community woodlots (Bryan et al., 2016).

Researchers have identified the prominent factors affecting household-level reactions to climate change, such as access to information, access to rural services (e.g., credit), cognitive processes, and social capital (Bryan et al., 2016; Okurut & Ama, 2013). This stream of literature emphasises the gender of the head of the household, indicating that households headed by females have a lower chance of being able to adapt to climate change (Bryan et al., 2016). Consequently, it can be inferred that climate-smart agriculture, as it relates to gender, has important implications for women’s empowerment.

Despite these concerns, sex-disaggregated data on climate-smart agriculture in African countries such as Senegal, Kenya, and Uganda indicate that both men and women are adopting new agricultural techniques that are likely to boost their resilience to climate change effects (Hills et al., 2015). For instance, in north-western Kenya, climate change could bring about major effects on agricultural productivity and farmers’ livelihoods. A project organised by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) in 2015 called Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture (MICCA) emphasised the empowerment of female and male dairy farmers (World Bank et al., 2015). Furthermore, through this project, women in the Kamotony region of Kenya were able to receive CSA training and establish a tree nursery. The revenue from the tree seedlings, garden flowers, and tea cuttings for planting gave them financial assistance to invest in dairy farming.

These new practices enabled the women to lower climate change risks and access funds, allowing them to make additional investments in their agricultural activities (World Bank et al., 2015). The additional credit also enables these women to pay their children’s school fees without difficulty and make monthly contributions to the National Health Insurance Fund for their family members. Moreover, the success of CSA in the region has enabled women to embark on agroforestry, which would have been ordinarily difficult for gender and cultural reasons. Activities such as these require certain features to be successful. These include innovativeness, trust, collaboration, as well as effective decision-making (Bernier et al., 2015).

Information is also vital for acclimating to climate change; however, various studies indicate that women do not have adequate access to important sources and types of climate change information and suitable responses (Bernier et al., 2015). Moreover, due to the different roles of men and women in agriculture, men and women also have various predilections for information (Bryan et al., 2016). Information appears to be a major barrier to women’s adoption of climate-smart practices. Findings of a study based in Kenya show that although the awareness of women on climate-smart agricultural practices was lower than that of men, women who were aware of these practices to an extent were as likely as men to employ these practices (Bernier et al., 2015). Access to credit and strong institutions also moderate the resilience of men and women against climate change risks (Bryan et al., 2016). An intra-household study based on four countries in West and East Africa and South Asia indicates that improvement in women’s access to credit and information increases the chance that they will employ new CSA practices (Bernier et al., 2015).

A sizeable number of investments in CSA do not consider the variations in resource entitlements of men and women, labour burdens, and other barriers in contemplation (Mutenje et al., 2019). For example, men tend to have expanded access to common property resources and credit (Perez et al., 2015). Men also have greater control over land than women, and land controlled by women is usually of poor quality and typified by insecure tenure (Perez et al., 2015). Many times, it is assumed that these initiatives will ultimately have the same effects on both men and women. Even the most inclusive or expansive CSA interventions may unknowingly discriminate against women when gender-differentiated barriers are ignored (Mutenje et al., 2019). If these constraints are not considered in the present and future CSA efforts, they will translate to more investment risks and reduce women farmers’ ability to expand investment in CSA. Therefore, the gender gap could be worsened, and the susceptibility of communities to climate change could rise, and this could adversely impact food security.

However, small-scale farmers and stakeholders in the agricultural sector significantly depend on ICT, hence the utilisation of technologies in climate-smart agriculture activities (World Bank et al., 2015). ICT-based climate-smart technologies diffuse the information flows of agricultural development opportunities. This increases women’s engagement in agricultural production decision-making, income use control, and community leadership (Huyer, 2012). Climate-smart technologies have an even greater impact when these technologies can reach marginalised groups of people and are tailored to their socio-cultural characteristics.

CSA approaches based on information technology such as mobile phones, radio, and social media have proven to be beneficial to women’s participation in CSA activities and commodity value chains (World Bank et al., 2015). For instance, in Senegal, text messages in the local languages, radio, and public information broadcasting are the communication channels most useful to women smallholder farmers. In addition, a research study on how information technology could support agricultural enterprises owned and managed by women in Zambia and Kenya concludes that ICT tools vary in their accessibility and usage by women and men (World Bank et al., 2015). Therefore, Zambia is currently developing projects to improve women’s ICT access. Apart from equity, the dissemination of information to farmers should be integrative (to enable farmers to act on received information), legitimate, and suited to farm-level decision-making (Tall et al., 2014).

6 Policy Implications for Women Empowerment in Africa

A major lesson of existing CSA initiatives is the recognition that women are active and valuable contributors to climate change adaptation processes (World Bank et al., 2015). Another lesson is that sustainable farming activities can be a viable source of employment for rural women, as they are important players in the green economy’s socio-economic value chain (Barasa et al., 2021). Effective climate-smart projects empower women and add value to their agricultural participation. For instance, diversification of sources of income is possible as a result of agricultural processing and marketing. Nevertheless, more effort is required so women farmers are not excluded from the benefits of transformational changes in the agricultural sector.

Furthermore, the implementation of climate-smart technologies in agriculture is reassuring, especially at the country level, where the incorporation of agricultural practices and pertinent local innovations has the potential to realise the pillars of climate-smart agriculture (Sikora et al., 2017). This has been affirmed in sub-Saharan Africa, where climate-smart approaches are transitioning from investing in merely technology-oriented projects to system-centric processes that emphasise the intricacies of farming systems (Ngwira et al., 2013). Studies have indicated that when there is a singular focus on technologies while executing agricultural innovation, the factors that regulate the accessibility and productive effects of such technologies are ignored (Schut et al., 2016).

It is often argued that when addressing adaption to climate change issues, especially at a regional level, a collaborative approach between researchers, practitioners, and policymakers should be adopted. This approach should be motivated by an interdisciplinary research line-up consisting of team members from various social backgrounds and sectors that aim to solve complicated environmental issues. However, the achievement of such an approach depends on the level of understanding among the members and the extent to which these members fit their efforts into the application of knowledge. An example of a collaborative method to address climate change issues is the collaborative research initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA), which combines ecological, physical, and socio-economic dimensions in this methodology (Cochrane et al., 2017). This initiative utilised a hotspot approach, emphasising the glacier-fed river basins as well as the semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa (Cochrane et al., 2017). This hotspot method is derived from the acknowledgement that climate change will not have the same impact on all persons (Abegunde et al., 2019).

7 Conclusion

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices offer a holistic approach to addressing climate change issues for women smallholder farmers in developing nations, particularly in Africa. These practices include efficacious agricultural techniques aligned with the three main pillars of CSA, such as mulching, integrated crop-livestock management, conservation agriculture, and enhanced water management (Murray et al., 2016). For instance, water management techniques have been successfully adopted in the Sahel regions of West Africa, resulting in increased grain output by more than 200% compared to control fields in Niger and Burkina Faso (Zougmore et al., 2018).

However, while some African countries have adopted CSA, there is still significant room for improvement, with only 26% of African countries having established CSA country profiles (Barasa et al., 2021). Despite these challenges, there are success stories in countries such as Lesotho, where CSA has brought about higher productivity, increased incomes, improved food security, and nutritional diversity, especially for women farmers (World Bank, n.d.).

Although more work needs to be done for the full potential of CSA to be realised, some African countries such as Senegal, Kenya, and Lesotho have made significant progress in improving women farmers’ livelihoods through the use of climate-smart technologies. Therefore, African economies should adopt Beuchelt and Badstue’s (2013) framework of programme cycle procedures of planning and design, implementation, as well as monitoring and evaluation in CSA project implementation. Effective institutions and expanded food production activities, such as food processing, are also necessary for sound CSA practice, enhancing food security and promoting SDG 5: gender equality.

In conclusion, the adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices has the potential to improve the livelihoods of women farmers in Africa, enhance food security, and mitigate the negative impacts of climate change. While progress has been made in certain African countries, more efforts are needed to ensure these practices are fully adopted across the continent. Governments and other stakeholders must work together to provide the necessary support, resources, and infrastructure to empower women farmers and promote sustainable agricultural practices to ensure an equitable future for all.

8 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research Directions

This chapter has added to the literature by offering a broad discussion of climate-smart technologies for the empowerment of women farmers in Africa. Although the study is limited to simply discussing selected issues, it captures pertinent perspectives that can be applied in different country settings. Research on climate-smart technologies, which began in 2000, according to Gandah et al. (2000), grew at a minimal rate between the 2000s and the early 2010s, began to gain priority in 2014, and achieved considerable visibility in 2020 (Barasa et al., 2021). Climate-smart technologies have been investigated by researchers and have been applied to mitigate the risks associated with climate change in certain African countries (Abegunde et al., 2019; Barasa et al., 2021, Bryan et al., 2016). A rising number of studies have also begun to investigate the reasons for gender variations in observations of climate change, adaptive capacity, and utilisation of climate-smart practices. This is not limited to male and female heads of households but extends to decision-makers of both genders (Bernier et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2015).

The constraints women experience regarding CSA adoption, such as land tenure issues and inadequate information in Africa, necessitate the implementation of more rigorous studies to empirically understand these challenges to the effective adoption of climate-smart technologies. In addition, future research can delve into a deeper examination of the literature and current debates involving the emerging prospects of climate-smart technologies for women and other vulnerable populations. In this regard, there is a compelling need to proffer new questions about climate change not only in Africa but in other regions. Also, it is crucial to continue studying the relationship between gender and climate change and to conduct a broader and deeper theoretical analysis of the viewpoints presented here.