Keywords

1 Introduction

Gender issues encompass a wide range of cultural expectations, social learning, and themes that pertain to access to resources, shared responsibilities, and inclusiveness in policy formulation (Bouchama et al., 2018). In Africa, women often face unequal opportunities and disadvantages compared to men, particularly in access to basic services and gender gaps in the labour market (Musavengane & Leonard, 2019; Georgalakis, 2020). The intersection of gender equality, women’s empowerment, and environmental sustainability is well established, but climate change can further exacerbate existing gender inequalities as women are particularly vulnerable to its impacts (Lau et al., 2021).

Women possess unique knowledge and skills that can enhance the efficacy and durability of efforts to tackle climate change. Advances in gender equality and social inclusion can support efforts to address climate change if policies that take into account differences in gender vulnerability and the distinct roles of women are implemented (Ergas et al., 2021). It is essential that, as the world shifts towards a new climate regime, governments recognise the relationship between gender and climate change and include women in policymaking.

African nations face several challenges in addressing the gender dimensions of climate change (Satterthwaite et al., 2020), including a lack of national competence on gender and climate change and its implications for sustainable development (Rieckmann, 2018). Recent studies reveal the gendered nature of climate change vulnerabilities and their social implications (Rao et al., 2019). In semi-arid regions of Africa, varying climatic, political, and socio-economic conditions exist. Continuous exposure to severe weather events has impacts on agricultural production, ecological services, and social relations, due to diverse terrain, biodiversity, and fluctuations in precipitation and micro-climatic conditions.

By 2050, the global temperature is projected to increase by a range of 0.5°C to 3.5°C due to climate change, with increased weather unpredictability and reduced rainfall in some regions (Allen et al., 2018). Climate resilience and adaptation are being threatened by the unpredictability of weather, particularly changes in rainfall patterns. African communities, already grappling with poverty and relying heavily on environmental livelihoods such as agriculture, are expected to experience the impacts of climate change more severely than wealthier populations (Ngare et al., 2022). African countries, as a result, are considered hot zones for climate change. According to Georgalakis (2020), women are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change than men, particularly impoverished women farmers who rely heavily on rain-fed agriculture (Eastin, 2018; Cianconi et al., 2020). Women bear a disproportionate share of the negative effects of climate change, further amplifying the existing gender gap.

Both men and women are negatively impacted by climate change; however, the impacts are experienced differently by each gender (Rao et al., 2019). Bouchama et al. (2018) suggest that this disparity arises from differences in resource access and gender roles. Women are particularly vulnerable to the challenges of climate change due to cultural norms, inequalities in gender roles, and socio-economic status (Georgalakis, 2020). In Africa, where climate change has led to increased frequency of drought, higher temperatures, and floods, the awareness of these dynamics varies between men and women (McOmber, 2020). Climate change worsens the already-existing issue of women’s marginalisation, complicating pre-existing social concerns about gender equality (Onwutuebe, 2019). Women’s reliance on men for financial support increases as climate change affects agricultural productivity and the ability of female farmers to earn a livelihood.

The unequal distribution of economic power between men and women is a major factor contributing to patriarchal oppression and increased susceptibility to climate change, which disproportionately affects women (Azong & Kelso, 2021). Patriarchy and gender inequality limit women’s ability to adapt to the impacts of climate change. This chapter provides unique perspectives on gender and climate issues across African regions. It also highlights the importance of considering the distinct experiences of men and women in addressing the impacts of climate change.

2 Part One: Gender and Climate Issues in West Africa

West Africa is facing a dual challenge of climate change and gender inequality (Makina & Moyo, 2016), which is negatively impacting the lives of women and girls. Climate change issues such as increased drought frequency, rainfall variability, high temperatures, and flooding are making the situation worse for women, who are already facing inequality in the region. The impacts of climate change will be felt more by women, as they will lose their socio-economic dependence on agriculture, especially in rural areas. The sustainable use of natural resources in the region, such as water, land, and forestry, is dependent on proper management. However, women are not actively involved in decision-making processes, leading to unequal distribution of resources and hindering their participation. To address this issue, it is important to include women in community-wide consultation processes and ensure their active involvement in decision-making and policymaking processes related to climate change and biodiversity conservation.

In West Africa, the impact of climate change on gender is intertwined with food security, water access, land use, assets, forestry resources, women migration, policy, and climate knowledge. Climate change has a disproportionate effect on women, who make up a large portion of the world’s poor and bear a greater share of the risks and costs of climate change (UNFCCC, 2018).

Female-headed households in West Africa are more likely to experience food insecurity than male-headed households due to a lack of financial support. Climate change affects the livelihoods of communities dependent on natural resources, and women are often responsible for fetching firewood and water. In areas where climate change has led to drought, women have to travel long distances to access water. In Senegal, declining rainfall has led to a 35% decrease in total rainfall in the past two decades, causing women to walk long distances to fetch water (Assan et al., 2018). This highlights the importance of considering gender in climate change interventions.

In West Africa, climate change has led to an increase in the frequency of drought and maladaptation of livelihood security, resulting in the migration of herders and escalation of farmer-herder conflicts (van der Land et al., 2018). Women are more vulnerable to gender-based violence, including human trafficking, child marriage, and conflict-related sexual violence, due to the perceived threat multiplier of climate change. The agricultural sector is a main source of employment for women in African countries, but they are dependent on rain-fed crops and face challenges in accessing weather and climate information services. This leads to disparities between men and women in accessing resources such as land ownership, distribution of quality seeds, and financial and agricultural extension services (Assan et al., 2018; Nyasimi et al., 2018). In Senegal, women have opted to receive climate and weather information via SMS messages in their local dialect due to the challenge of accessing such information. In Ghana, men were found to be more responsive in adopting climate information services due to their financial resources and control over household income (Trémolières & Walther, 2019).

The rising temperatures and precipitation in West Africa are leading to disastrous consequences, and women are more likely to face harm and low survival rates in the case of a disaster. Gender inequalities limit women’s access to information, resources, training, and decision-making, making them unable to access relief provisions and assistance (Partey et al., 2020). The health of women is threatened, and their limited access to healthcare services, facilities, and social amenities, including hospitals, is wiped out during a climate-related disaster (Davenport et al., 2020). Women in West Africa are often responsible for sourcing water for the household, leading to increased workloads when water scarcity is heightened by climate change (Nahar & Tajuddin, 2022). Climate change impairs women’s ability to make a decent living, forcing them to migrate to sustain themselves and their children (Kabir & Serrao-Neumann, 2020). Despite the crucial role of women in disaster adaptation, their role as agents of change has been largely ignored (Partey et al., 2020).

West Africa lacks national-level attention to gender mainstreaming, which underscores the need for expansive policy dialogue. For effective implementation of climate change initiatives that are sensitive to the needs and interests of women, gender must be considered at every stage of the process. This typically entails idea development to programme design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation, with equal representation of women. The Paris Agreement and Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development both emphasise the importance of gender equality and the well-being of women. Integrating inclusive gender initiatives within national climate actions is imperative for West African nations to reposition beyond gender policy disparities.

According to the Women and Trade Networks (WTNW) for West Africa, there are gender disparities in education and opportunities, particularly in rural regions, where most women and girls are educationally disadvantaged (Njoh, 2016; Connell, 2020)). This hinders their ability to adapt to the effects of climate change. Girl-child education can serve as a long-term strategy for ensuring communities’ adaptability and survival. Training programmes for women, who are out of school, is an adaptation option as it provides them with new skills and opportunities for making a living. Equal access to education and formal programmes for both men and women can give households different but complementary ways to adapt to climate change.

There is agreement among researchers and policymakers on the existing gap between climate change and gender. The identifiable gaps are driven by social, economic, and environmental inequalities, as well as discriminatory laws and policies that restrict women’s rights and empowerment (Dawit et al., 2022; McOmber, 2020; Gonda, 2019). In West African countries such as Mali, Nigeria, and Burkina Faso, customary family laws on marriage, which provide for girls to be married off as young as 15 (Goemans et al., 2022), impede women’s participation in policy and decision-making (Cattaneo et al., 2020). Policies related to employment, political participation, and resource access have not sufficiently addressed the relationship between climate change, gender vulnerability, and discrimination in West African countries (Bouchama et al., 2018). There are efforts to include gender in climate-related policies, such as the African Development Bank’s green growth strategies, but most of these efforts are limited by technological access, financial resources, and policy inconsistencies. McOmber (2020) argues that the Paris Accord has failed to address the needs of vulnerable groups, such as women and children, who are disproportionately affected by the impacts of climate change (Mulema et al., 2021; Georgalakis, 2020; Cattaneo et al., 2020).

Despite the Paris Agreement providing a platform for African countries to improve gender responsiveness in their contributions to climate mitigation and adaptation, they face limitations such as a lack of technological access, financial resources, and policy inconsistencies (Bouchama et al., 2018). Although there have been initiatives in the agricultural sector in some West African countries, such as Senegal, Mali, and Burkina Faso, where farmers are involved in Participatory Integrated Climate Service for Agriculture (PICSA) (Dayamba et al., 2018), West African countries still face significant issues regarding gender inequality and the impacts of climate change. Women are particularly affected due to their social roles and responsibilities. Nevertheless, women play a crucial role in mitigating climate change and should be actively engaged in such efforts.

3 Part Two: Gender and Climate Issues in East Africa

According to a study by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO, 2019), climate change impacts are not gender-neutral. There are long-standing disparities between men and women regarding access to and control over natural resources in East Africa. Despite advancements in women’s empowerment, gender inequalities remain an issue, and women play a major role in managing natural resources, especially in agriculture (96% of women in Burundi, 76% in Kenya, 84% in Rwanda, 71% in Tanzania, and 77% in Uganda are represented in agriculture, according to USAID, 2022). Climate change poses a threat to socio-economic activities, particularly in climate-dependent sectors like agriculture, and it is important to understand how men and women are specifically impacted by considering local gender regimes and norms, risk perception, response preferences, and decision-making power. Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies should be gender-sensitive to reflect the varying experiences of men and women.

Gender inequalities expose women who depend on natural resources more vulnerable to climate change risks than their male counterparts. Instructively, the men usually own the land in East African countries, while women are mainly involved in farming and cultivation (Gaddis et al., 2018). Men derive the most profits from agriculture, and consequently women are more vulnerable to climate risks. Women are also vulnerable due to their social status, education level, location, and income-generating activities. Women in arid areas, such as those who practise agriculture, are especially vulnerable to the impacts of extreme weather brought about by climate change (Balehey et al., 2018; Quandt, 2020). These impacts result in decreased education opportunities, increased poverty levels, and domestic violence. Climate change can also present an opportunity for promoting gender equity. However, the possibilities in closing the gender gap can be realised by adopting gender-sensitive approaches that focus on vulnerable women. Strategies that focus only on male landowners overlook the role of female caretakers (Jerneck, 2017).

The impact of climate change must be analysed from a gender perspective, as it affects men and women differently (Markowitz & Bailenson, 2021; Rabitz et al., 2021). Gender mainstreaming is a solution to climate-related disasters, as it can address gender inequalities and build resilience in both men and women (Chineka et al., 2019). The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) report (2021) recognises the importance of gender in climate change action and has encouraged the collection and analysis of sex-disaggregated data. East African countries like Kenya, Eritrea, Uganda, Tanzania, and Burundi have ratified and integrated global environmental policies from the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol that include gender-sensitive policies as a mechanism for adaptation and mitigation. These countries can receive technical and financial assistance from UN agencies such as UNEP, UNESCO, World Vision, and the EU.

East African governments are improving in adapting and mitigating climate change through gender-responsive policies and practices. Studies show that these policies have reduced the negative impact of climate change on agriculture and natural resources (Ampaire et al., 2020). Addressing climate challenges through a gender lens provides an opportunity for East African countries to solve gender inequalities and create a gender-inclusive society. Both men and women should be recognised as owners of resources and participate in decision-making processes regarding climate change. Advocating for peace within communities can also reduce instances of vulnerability. Diversifying crop and livestock production and intensifying gender trends in farming systems can help reduce the impact of climate change on rural livelihoods and improve food security (Tavenner et al., 2019).

The impacts of climate change are felt by society directly and indirectly, as outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC (2021) reports the increasing risk of severe and irreversible change resulting from high levels of global warming and lists several impacts, including floods, droughts, storms, rising oceans, disease, conflicts, loss of species, health risks, poverty, land degradation, and heat waves. Huyer et al. (2021) state that the impacts of climate change are lived and experienced differently by different individuals. In East Africa, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas like north-eastern Uganda, north-eastern Tanzania, and Northern Kenya, both men and women are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change than in other areas.

The socio-economic effects of climate change on vulnerable men and women in East Africa are substantial and impact multiple aspects of their lives. Climate change has a significant impact on agricultural productivity, leading to a reduction in land productivity and the loss of species, affecting men and women who depend on farming and pastoral activities. Women are more affected as they control farming activities, especially in rural areas. Pastoral men, who depend on livestock production for their livelihood, are also affected by the loss of livestock due to excessive heat (Walker et al. 2022).

The availability of water is also impacted by climate change, causing droughts, and exacerbating the vulnerability of marginalised groups, such as women (Gebremeskel et al., 2019). Women are more vulnerable due to the division of labour, and they have to walk long distances to find clean drinking water, making them susceptible to health issues and sexual violence. Men, who have to walk long distances to take their livestock to water sources, are also at risk of health issues and attacks. Climate change has a direct impact on food insecurity, affecting food production, access, distribution, availability, quantity, quality, and nutritional levels. This has a significant impact on the health of both men and women, leading to food deficiencies and malnutrition. A case study showed that the locust invasion in East Africa was mainly attributed to climate change, which led to food insecurity in the region.

Climate change leads to physical disasters such as famine, floods, droughts, and disease outbreaks, which have direct consequences for gender roles, experiences, and responsibilities. Women are more severely affected by the hazards caused by these natural disasters, including loss of life, damage to property, water-borne diseases, heat strokes, poor air quality, physical injuries, and increased poverty (Kalantari et al., 2018). Other social impacts of climate change include displacement, migration, and conflicts. Climate change is a major cause of resource depletion, leading to conflicts and violence over scarce resources (Mueller et al., 2019). Women are often vulnerable to violence during these conflicts and may face physical, sexual, and psychological violence. The effects of climate change also impact education, as children, especially girls, may have to drop out of school to help their families cope with the impacts of climate change.

4 Part Three: Gender and Climate Issues in North Africa

Ecosystems and rural livelihoods across the world are being threatened by new issues related to climate change, including pandemics, environmental degradation, and mass migration (Huyer et al., 2020). Climate change is causing severe heat waves, drought, and aridity in North Africa, which is projected to be severely affected by future climate change (Waha et al., 2017). Algeria is the country most at risk due to its extreme susceptibility to the effects of climate change, while Morocco’s vital agricultural sector is expected to be the most affected (Abdelmajid et al., 2021). Wheat yields in Egypt and Libya are also expected to decrease due to climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projected a drop in durum wheat yield in the central northern region of Algeria between 2017 and 2021 compared to the baseline period between 1980–2009 and 2020.

Climate change has unequal impacts on daily lives and livelihoods, with different gender groups being impacted differently. According to Bhadwal et al. (2019), gender vulnerability to climate change is different due to differences in roles and responsibilities, as well as the exacerbation of gender sensitivity due to limited resources, poor employment markets, and cultural constraints on women’s activities (Schwerhoff & Konte, 2020). Gender inequality plays a critical role in increased vulnerability to climate change dangers, making it necessary to integrate gender into policies, development plans, and implementation techniques with financial backing. Effective investment in both men and women requires systemic agriculture, governance, education, and industry reforms, using metrics such as impact evaluations, vulnerability assessment budgets, and quotas to measure gender parity (Glazebrook et al., 2020).

The United Nations has made progress in raising awareness of gender concerns in North Africa. The 1992 Earth Summit (United Nations, 1992) focused on sustainable development, and the non-binding UN action plan on sustainable development, Agenda 21, included Chap. 24 on Global Action for Women Towards Sustainable and Equitable Development. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change also addressed social components, including gender issues, and the UN Convention on Biological Diversity recognised the importance of women’s full involvement in sustainable development (Huyer et al., 2020). In 1995, the Beijing Platform for Action was formed to address environmental challenges, and the United Nations later included “gender equality” as a sustainable development goal in the UN 2030 Agenda. These efforts show a recognition of the importance of gender in environmental policy and sustainable development (Bastian et al., 2019).

Despite advances in sustainable development and gender equality, there are still disparities in the area of climate change. The Rio Convention and Agenda 21 have not directly addressed climate change, and gender equality issues have not been featured in UNFCCC outcome papers (Huyer et al., 2020). However, there has been a willingness to mainstream gender issues in policy and governance. The policy landscape after the Paris Agreement (2015) presents new challenges for gender equality in the face of climate change. North African countries are concerned about gender disparity in climate change mitigation and adaptation. Development is hindered by persistent gender stereotypes, and gender roles have not received sufficient attention.

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the North African economy through lockdown measures causing a decline in exports and negative effects on both supply and demand. The pandemic and climate change are linked by the systemic marginalisation and structural inequalities revealed in the region. The pandemic has created new challenges while exacerbating established concerns of climate change and gender inequality. The impact of COVID-19 has also hindered efforts to address climate change and promote gender equality, as well as the ongoing problem of famine in North Africa (Sultana, 2021; Otekunrin et al., 2020; UNECA, 2020).

The link between climate change, gender dynamics, and migration is widely documented (see Lama et al., 2021). Climate migrants, who flee areas with limited access to water and lower productivity in agriculture due to rising sea levels, are estimated to number 19.3 million in North Africa alone (9.0% of the total population) (World Bank, 2021). Women, who are already disadvantaged in terms of access to resources, are especially sensitive to the negative effects of migration. Climate change, characterised by droughts, unpredictable rainfall, and rising temperatures, is expected to exacerbate gender inequality and other socio-economic problems in North Africa. To effectively address the issue, adaptation strategies must consider the unique factors of exposure and gender sensitivity. A more holistic perspective is needed to appreciate the full scope of the problem, considering that increasing women’s opportunities and capabilities are impossible without men’s support. A broader sense of belonging is critical because of gender inequality and proactive measures and actions on climate change adaptation.

5 Part Four: Gender and Climate Change Issues in Southern Africa

In Southern Africa, patriarchy dominates with men having control and decision-making power over natural resources, while women are expected to be caretakers of the land and support their husband’s decisions. Globalisation has exposed both genders to the same challenges and opportunities, leading to more apparent gender inequality. Education is often viewed as a hindrance to women’s roles in society, causing them to miss out on opportunities and face abuse (Bassey & Bubu, 2019). Anthropogenic activities, including energy production and industrial activities, are responsible for 74% of greenhouse gas emissions (United Nations Environmental Programme, 2020). Climate change has caused changes in weather patterns, reduction in agricultural yields, loss of biodiversity, food insecurity, health risks, and poverty. Women are disproportionately affected by these impacts, highlighting the need for a more holistic approach that addresses gender inequality and tackles the effects of climate change.

A study by Pearson et al. (2017) highlights the relationship between gender and climate change, stating that gender stereotypes shape how individuals perceive and respond to climate change. A solar mini-grid project in Zambia, described by Johnson et al. (2019), disrupted or reinforced gender norms and practices in energy behaviour. Climate change has affected traditional energy sources, and gendered approaches were found to be more effective in promoting clean energy and women’s access to it. Climate-related disasters, such as the 2022 flood in South Africa, have a disproportionate impact on women, particularly those who are poor and vulnerable. The floods caused many girls to drop out of school.

Modernity, Christianity, and colonialism have shaped gender relations in Africa (Tomalin & Starkey, 2022), but cultural traditions have perpetuated inequalities between men and women. Climate hazards have made society vulnerable, and women, who are often overlooked, are particularly susceptible due to their limited involvement in climate change-related activities (Reggers, 2019). The agricultural sector is dominated by women in rural areas, but in South African countries, women are excluded from owning land, which impacts their access to information and control over resources. A study by Nyahunda et al. (2021) in the Vhembe district of South Africa found that women’s vulnerability to climate change was heightened by their dependence on climate-sensitive livelihoods and patriarchal dominance. Therefore, gender-sensitive solutions are crucial in reducing vulnerability to disasters.

The link between gender and climate change has been largely neglected in policy development and implementation. South Africa has a Gender Action Plan as part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2019) to address gender issues in adaptation, mitigation, capacity building, technology, and finance. Namibia’s constitution addresses discriminatory customary laws in inheritance, but married women only have land ownership rights if their husband dies. Zimbabwe has a local Gender Action Plan and is working on connecting gender and climate change for mitigation, but it still needs to mainstream gender into its policies (United Nations Development Programme, Zimbabwe, 2020). In the South African region, there is significant gender disparity and a lack of progress. The lack of progress is due to limited laws, legislative frameworks, and institutional frameworks, making women particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change (Basiru et al., 2022).

Climate change poses greater risks to women in the Southern African region than men (Zhou et al., 2022). Women are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their limited resource ownership and economic opportunities (Louis & Mathew, 2020). As a result, the impacts of climate change exacerbate existing gender gaps in the region. In rural areas, where most of the population relies on climate-related resources for their livelihood (Khan et al., 2022; Dibakoane et al., 2022), women are left to face food insecurity, water shortages, conflicts, and health issues. Climate-related challenges such as droughts and decreased rainfall have a significant impact on agriculture, which is the main source of income for many in the region. This leads to decreased productivity and income, particularly for small-scale farmers and those relying on irrigation development. Climate change is also affecting the tourism industry in the region, particularly in Livingstone, Zambia, where there has been an increase in temperature, extreme rainfall patterns, and a decline in rainfall (Dube & Nhamo, 2018). The projected decrease in rainfall will also affect men and women who rely on irrigation for their livelihood (Hamududu & Ngoma, 2020).

Climate change negatively impacts mental health, reproductive and maternal health, food security, nutrition, and mortality rates, as well as contributing to increasing weather disasters and infectious diseases. Women are more susceptible to the majority of these infectious diseases due to a physical sensitivity to climate change. In Swaziland, the Lubombo and Hhohho regions have been affected by an increase in malaria cases due to prolonged precipitation creating a conducive environment for mosquito breeding (Chuang et al., 2017). Climate change is also linked to HIV transmission and spread in Lesotho due to poverty resulting from food insecurity and impacts on livelihoods (Low et al., 2019; Braun, 2020). Women and young girls in rural Lesotho are vulnerable to HIV/AIDS in times of poverty, leading to desperate measures such as child labour and precarious employment.

Southern African countries including Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe face water shortages due to an increase in temperatures as a result of changing climatic conditions (Mpandeli et al., 2018). This, in turn, affects other resources like food and energy, escalating the region’s vulnerability to climate change. The high dependence on climate-sensitive sectors like water and agriculture and the reliance on hydropower for energy make Southern Africa particularly exposed to climate variability and change. Food insecurity in South Africa is a crisis due to drought incidence resulting from unpredictable rainfall patterns, leading to a decrease in agricultural productivity (Kwame et al., 2022). Additionally, gender sensitivity to climate change is becoming an issue, with females affected in more significant respects than males. This further raises the society’s inequality threshold and exposes women to negative impacts on their livelihoods, resources, and health. Gender-sensitive policies can reduce the region’s vulnerability, and laws that undermine women’s leadership and decision-making power in climate-related decisions should be abolished or amended.

6 Insights and Recommendations for the African Region

As discussed above, climate change has direct and indirect effects on gender, leading to vulnerabilities. Hence, societies need to take action to address these vulnerabilities in a resilient manner. Climate change response actions must be gender-sensitive, as noted by Awiti (2022), to be effective. Wheeler (2011) highlights the reasons for this vulnerability, including poverty, dependency on natural resources, lack of inclusive governance, and gender inequality. These differences, experiences, and societal roles limit the response to climate change and require inclusive approaches.

To effectively respond to the impacts of climate change, governments, institutions, and society must prioritise gender mainstreaming. Climate change affects rural areas in considerable respects, especially in arid and semi-arid land (ASAL) regions, thus, the solutions must be rural centred. The success of climate change initiatives and programmes in Africa requires equal participation from both men and women, and the utilisation of women’s knowledge and leadership in mitigation efforts. National climate change policies (NCCPs), which consist of laws, regulations, and strategies enacted by individual countries to address the impacts of climate change, must prioritise gender equality. African countries must make gender equality a fundamental aspect of their climate action as they formulate nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which are countries’ commitments under the Paris Agreement to address and tackle the impacts of climate change. Hence, the implementation of NDCs, NCCPs, and other strategies for reducing and adapting to climate change in Africa should demonstrate measurable progress towards promoting gender equality.

Climate change can be effectively addressed through policies that promote gender equality regarding access and ownership of information and technology, as well as in education and training. It is important to ensure that climate change action strategies are inclusive and gender-sensitive, so that they benefit all members of society equally. Women and men must be actively involved in policymaking and response measures related to climate change in Africa. African countries should also evaluate their financial and fiscal needs to implement effective gender-sensitive policies and measures to address climate change. Despite efforts to mitigate the effects of climate change, vulnerable groups in Africa, including women, are still susceptible to its negative impacts due to gaps in gender vulnerability. African countries must prioritise closing the gender gap as a key measure in mitigating climate change and ensuring the achievement of the Global Sustainable Development Goals. The following are gender-sensitive guidelines for climate change action and gender mainstreaming in Africa:

a) At the national level:

  • Develop a Gender Action Plan to support women in addressing the impacts of climate change.

  • Implement strategies and establish institutions that advance gender equality and increase women’s empowerment in climate change efforts.

  • Address discriminatory policies and biases against women.

  • Invest in gender-sensitive solutions and tools.

  • Amend outdated laws and policies that negatively affect women.

  • Strengthen women’s access to resources and support their participation in leadership roles.

  • Integrate gender perspectives in all aspects of climate change planning and implementation.

  • Ensure equal representation and decision-making power for women in climate-related bodies and committees.

  • Provide gender-sensitive financing and funding mechanisms for climate change initiatives.

  • Create opportunities for women’s entrepreneurship and economic empowerment in the green economy.

  • Support the development of gender-sensitive technologies and innovations for climate action.

  • Promote gender-sensitive adaptation measures for communities affected by climate change.

  • Ensure that the impacts and benefits of climate change interventions reach both men and women equally.

b) At the institutional level:

  • Collect and analyse sex-disaggregated data to understand the gender dimensions of climate change.

  • Develop and implement gender-responsive climate policies.

  • Reduce carbon footprint through sustainable practices such as reducing energy consumption, recycling, and reducing waste.

  • Raise awareness on the importance of gender and climate change.

  • Mobilise resources for gender-sensitive approaches to climate action.

  • Advocate for gender equality in climate change efforts and hold the government accountable.

  • Provide training and resources for women to lead and participate in climate action.

  • Support and collaborate with gender-sensitive organisations and initiatives.

c) At an individual level:

  • Advocate for equal educational opportunities for girls and boys.

  • Advocate for fairness and equity in gender-related matters.

  • Encourage active engagement in gender and climate action plans within communities.

  • Advocate for climate action that addresses the gender dimensions of the issue.

  • Participate in mitigation efforts such as conserving energy, reducing waste, and practising sustainable agriculture and land use in the community.

  • Promote sustainable lifestyles and consumption patterns.

  • Support community-based climate change initiatives that prioritise gender equality and women’s empowerment.

It is, therefore, imperative that gender-based approaches should be developed to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Women have a great potential to influence climate adaptation but are hindered by cultural and socio-economic constraints. To overcome these obstacles, financial instruments and education and leadership opportunities for women should be encouraged. Gender-sensitive legal frameworks and climate information services should also be put in place. The adoption of climate change adaptations and mitigations is influenced by factors such as gender, age, and access to information. Women should be engaged as key stakeholders in decision-making processes and have equal opportunities in policy formulation, governance, and land use. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) emphasises the importance of considering gender-specific needs when making access to climate information for farm management available (WMO, 2019). This approach to decision-making is crucial in mitigating the risks associated with climate change.

African countries should implement gender-sensitive policies and plans to address the unequal impacts of climate change. This includes collecting and analysing sex-disaggregated data to identify and address vulnerabilities, promoting gender equality in education through the use of tools like Gender-Responsive Education Sector Planning, and providing gender-responsive financial aid during climate-related disasters (GRESP, 2017). Investing in girls’ education is crucial as it fosters climate participation and leadership, enhances life skills, and strengthens a country’s resilience to climate-related disasters. Gender-responsive technologies, such as Climate Smart Agriculture, should also be promoted to address food insecurity. Ultimately, African countries must recognise the gendered impacts of climate change and adopt gender-sensitive approaches to achieve sustainable development.