Keywords

1 Introduction

African countries are too often unprepared to shelter and care for their people during natural disasters. Disaster management policies and procedures needed to mitigate the threats associated with climate change must incorporate a gendered approach that considers the immediate and long-term effects on women, a vulnerable population in developing countries. Studies have shown that women in Africa bear the burden of traditional domestic responsibilities and typically require assistance during disasters as they seek birthing shelters, infant/childcare facilities, and care for elderly family members (Adeola, 2020, Adeola, 2021; Adeola et al., 2021; Blau et al., 2022).

Even though the role gender plays in climate-related outcomes is widely acknowledged as a crucial area of investigation, the scant number of pertinent articles shows that further empirical study on the subject is necessary. Extant literature reveals the effects of changing weather patterns, particularly on the effect of inadequate water supply for Africa’s farmers who rely on rainfed farming (Henriksson et al., 2021; Nyasimi et al., 2018). Similarly, public policy-level interventions aimed at increasing the use of communication strategies and technological innovations to combat climate change challenges should pay special attention to Africa’s women farmers.

This chapter summarises the authors’ ideas presented in this book and provides gender-responsive solutions to climate change impacts while also highlighting future research directions. Table 1 summarises the ideas from Chaps. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 for ease of reference. The book takes into account the critical role of gender and technological innovations and tools in mitigating and adapting to climate change in Africa. Although Africa has been identified by international organisations as the continent most vulnerable to climate disasters, there is evidence in this book that Africa has the human and natural resources to combat climate change if the necessary policies are adopted.

Table 1 Summary of chapters in the book
Full size table

Climate decisions and actions have predominantly been inclusive of men, with limited participation of women. This book, through chapters on gender and climate issues in Africa (Chap. 2), gender vulnerability to climate change (Chap. 3), and climate change and gender difference (Chap. 4), unravels the deleterious effect of climate change on women and the girl child during natural disasters. The authors of this book propose that women have invaluable contributions that must not be neglected in the quest for a sustainable Africa. By empowering women with sustainable practices through technological adoption, it is projected that Africa will become a protagonist and not a victim of climate change.

African women need to be given the due audience, attention, responsibility, and roles they deserve in an effort to combat climate change. To this end, this chapter first provides a synopsis of the discussions in the book as seen in Table 1; makes recommendations for gender-responsive solutions to climate change impact; outlines strategies to make climate information services more gender-responsive in Africa; and discusses contemporary themes, issues, and climate-responsive pathways. Finally, the chapter highlights future research directions to achieve the climate-safe Africa we want.

2 Gender-Responsive Solutions to Climate Change Impact in Africa

Climate change can be expected to escalate gender-related weaknesses and overlapping levels of abuse against women. Gender-responsive remedies to address climate vulnerability and hazards are not widely understood; therefore, lacking gender-responsive directives have not been implemented equally. Meaningful strategies for mediating the effects of climate change in Africa must take into consideration economic, social, and cultural realities, all of which are informed by gender issues. African nations are called upon to design adaptive interventions acceptable to both women and men; conduct gender analyses to identify climate-related risks; and adopt vulnerability-reduction initiatives, particularly for women in rural areas.

Attention to the ten critical focus areas that follow would lessen women’s susceptibility, increase their resilience and capabilities to respond to climate change, and facilitate SDG 13.

2.1 Gender-Sensitive Legal Rights and Institutional Support

The legal rights of African women to own property and resources must be established and enforced to guarantee equality in reaction to climate change or climate-related disasters. According to Awiti (2022), although some sub-Saharan nations have acknowledged women’s land ownership for their constitutions and implemented appropriate legislative and institutional changes, there are still obstacles that prevent women from having access to or control of land and other productive assets. It is important to give meaningful legal attention to gender-sensitive issues, especially given the current uncertainties in climate change in Africa.

2.2 Women’s Representation and Participation in Decision-Making

Women’s equitable and meaningful engagement in the environment and policymaking processes continues to be severely hampered by the absence of information, statistics, and quantification of their involvement in these activities. Women face impediments to political participation owing to intrinsic patriarchal structures at the national and local levels, even when robust national gender legislation is in place. This inequality is exacerbated by women’s lack of participation in the decision-making process on issues of climate change mitigation through policy planning and implementation (United Nations Climate Change, n.d.a). It has been shown that adopting a variety of supportive measures, such as adopting flexible meeting schedules that do not interfere with women’s household responsibilities and acknowledging possible safety issues, can boost women’s involvement in decision-making (Ihalainen et al., 2021).

Removing entrance obstacles and enhancing involvement will positively affect women’s representation and participation rate in decision-making. According to Howard (2019), investment in workforce participation and capacity development will help increase women’s economic power. Groups charged with decision-making regarding climate adaptation and mitigation programmes must unfailingly incorporate women to ensure adequate and diverse representation so women will be empowered to make policies that directly impact their gender and children (Adeola, 2020).

Women have a critical role to play in mitigating climate change. Therefore, their representation and participation in climate-related decision-making is expedient. African women could become important agents of change at the local level because of their knowledge and experience in domestic activities that promote sustainable climate action (UN Women, 2022). Women’s participation in climate decision-making leads to more stringent climate policies that result in lower emissions, improved natural resource management, better resource governance, and conservation outcomes at the local level (UN Women, 2022).

2.3 Facilitating the Participation of Women in Agricultural Value Chains

Women in Africa are frequently excluded from participation and investment in agricultural value chains, particularly in processing, marketing, and management; gender conventions; and lack of monetary capital, the long-term advantages of initiatives involving the agricultural value chain are in jeopardy. Climate change increases the severity, frequency, and range of threats (Nyasimi & Huyer, 2017). Gender-sensitive financial institutions in Africa are in a position to boost women’s productivity and quality by supporting their participation in agri-business value chains.

Men and women frequently pursue distinct, though often congruent, agricultural careers and rely on various technologies and production management systems. It is critical to consider how these distinctions, often influenced by societal norms and decisions, can merge in a way that encourages men and women to adapt environmentally friendly farming methods and raise awareness of the relevance of gender equality to enhance agricultural output (Nelson & Huyer, 2016).

2.4 Enabling Diversification of Livelihoods for Women

Diversification of livelihoods is encouraged for African women in an ever-changing climate. According to Njuki et al. (2022), successful adaptation initiatives will depend on projects that empower women to add value to their agricultural production and broaden their sources of income. To this end, in addition to combating erratic agricultural productivity, diversification into revenue-generating enterprises offers the potential for women’s financial security (Nyasimi & Huyer, 2017). Youth migration plays a role in this diversification: As youth venture into service sectors, access to education improves, especially in rural regions, which opens up skilled employment options. Similarly, business assistance grants for agriculture-based entrepreneurship development offer several home-based income choices.

2.5 Data by Gender and Relevant Gender Indicators

Data and gender analysis are the most valuable methods for identifying differential impacts and conducting risk assessments (Frenova, 2022). The ability to provide timely, accurate data is, at best, limited for many sub-Saharan African nations. Sex-disaggregated data has to be required by any laws or regulations that control the gathering, evaluation, and distribution of official statistics. Collection and analysis of data based on gender-related effects will expedite the formulation of decision-makers planning agendas, especially as they shape the national budget.

2.6 Gender-Responsive Financial Services

Women cannot adjust to or build resistance to climate change without adequate financial resources (Danso-Abbeam et al., 2021). The broader impact of financial inclusion on women’s economic empowerment is limited by social and cultural restrictions and the social standing of women. Additionally, insurance against climate-related disasters is a crucial risk management tactic that may boost resilience, safeguard assets, and save lives. However, because impoverished women are predominantly present in economically vulnerable communities, financial support programmes should include a comprehensive spectrum of products. According to Ng’weno et al. (2018), adjustable financial solutions that match personal experiences show greater potential for effect at scale than a one-size-fits-all strategy. To determine how best to target and personalise financial products to meet women’s specific needs, personal data must be collected. Resolving equality disparities in property ownership and employment would augment policies intended to increase women’s access to financial services and the collateral needed to borrow from formal banking institutions.

2.7 Gender-Responsive Adaptation and Mitigation Technologies

Diverse socio-economic characteristics such as gender, age, and crop farming knowledge, as well as organisational elements such as access to extension services and climate change knowledge, all affect recipients’ adoption of climate change mitigation and adaptation measures. Mutenje et al. (2019) demonstrated that women’s purchasing power, drought shock, and access to CSA technology positively increased the likelihood of investing in CSA technology mixes. Locally led climate action can empower women to achieve a higher quality of life and benefit vulnerable populations; hence it should be encouraged at community and sub-sovereign levels.

The Commonwealth Secretariat, in their best practice guide on gender integration in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) published in October 2022, recommended a skill empowerment strategy for gender-just integration for all women, irrespective of sector or state of vulnerability, in an effort to promote an inclusive integration of women into climate mitigation and adaptation plans (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2022). NDCs (see Chap. 1) are climate action plans to cut emissions and adapt to climate impacts. Each party to the Paris Agreement is required to establish an NDC that should be updated every five years (UN Climate Action, n.d.).

Henriksson et al. (2021), in a study of smallholder sugarcane farmers in Southern Malawi, found that women have more difficulty accessing and utilising weather and climate information than men. Such impediments are a result of illiteracy, cultural norms, unfamiliarity with digital technology, and language hurdles. For instance, Senegalese women prefer receiving communications in their native tongues via SMS apps, local radio, prediction boards, and broadcasts at gathering sites like mosques (Tall et al., 2014). Men in Ghana’s Upper West Region were more receptive than women to adopting climate information services, given their greater access to financial resources (Partey et al., 2020).

Creation of a grassroots network of female broadcasters would be a valuable strategy to encourage women’s access to meteorological, climatological, and agro-advisories as a means to lower the causal factors of disasters (Huyer et al., 2021). When access to climate information for women is prioritised, the use of mobile phone technology and other climate information services will help to narrow the gender awareness gap on Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Africa (Mittal, 2016).

2.8 Promoting Labour-Saving and Productivity-Enhancing Technologies

It is a fact that African women and girls who carry water and fuel wood, often at great distances, undoubtedly have long-term detrimental health challenges and are exposed to discrimination and physical harm (Nyasimi & Huyer, 2017). In the same vein, women’s work in agriculture and the home is frequently labour intensive and time consuming, which limits the time they have for activities like education or diversifying their income sources; it is, therefore, critical to promote and make affordable labour-saving technologies that help women reduce their workload, increase their productivity in a changing climate, and give them more free time (Huyer, 2016; Jost et al., 2016; Murray et al., 2016).

2.9 Promoting an Assets-Based Approach to the Gendered Impacts of Climate Change

Mediating the consequences of hazardous climate change on women depends on their having access to assets and finance (Ngigi & Birner, 2013). These resources include natural capital (e.g., soil fertility, water, and trees); human capital (e.g., knowledge, abilities, drive, time management, well-being, and nutrition); financial capital (e.g., credit and savings); social capital (e.g., cultural standards, legal frameworks, and institutional structures); and physical capital (e.g., technology and infrastructure). According to Awiti (2022), gender disparities in agri-business and other sectors are a measure of these assets or capital.

There is evidence that women, especially those in rural areas, continue to experience gender disparities, especially in access to resources like land, animals, agricultural inputs, and services. For instance, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2010), on average, women in sub-Saharan Africa possess 15% of the land, a percentage that conceals significant national differences. Gilbert (2002) found that male farmers in Malawi used more fertiliser and devoted more acreage to commercial crops than female farmers. Compared to males, African females are less likely to embrace new crop types and management strategies (Kristjanson et al., 2017).

Understanding the risks of climate change requires the use of an asset-based way of building gender-responsive treatments. Men and women have differing baseline wealth endowments, which results in fundamentally unequal risk or adaptability outcomes. Women in most rural African countries, on average, have less knowledge, information, and time (human capital) than males to address climate-related hazards (Simpson et al., 2021). Women confront significant challenges in diversifying into different livelihood alternatives if they do not have fair access to land, financing, knowledge, and agricultural technology. Therefore, any attempt to create and implement gender-responsive global warming remedies must employ a holistic, asset-based strategy to identify dominant causative pathways and provide appropriate governmental and institutional choices to address interconnected asset or capital dis-endowments.

2.10 Commitment to the Crafting of a National-Level Gender Action Plan (GAP)

As mentioned in Chap. 1, African countries should commit to crafting a national-level Gender Action Plan (GAP) that focuses on the priority areas identified in the enhanced GAP adopted by UNFCCC in December 2019 during COP25 in Madrid, Spain (UNFCCC Gender Action Plan, 2019). According to the UN Women report, from a gender perspective—the adoption of the enhanced five-year Lima Work Programme (United Nations Climate Change, n.d.b) and an updated Gender Action Plan (GAP 2.0) (UN Women, n.d.) represent a key outcome of COP25. Parties to the GAP initiative commit to the promotion of gender equality in policies regarding climate action (gender-responsive climate action) and promotion of women’s rights. Five priority areas were identified in the GAP agreement:

  1. 1.

    Capacity-building, knowledge management, and communication

  2. 2.

    Gender balance, participation, and women’s leadership

  3. 3.

    Coherence

  4. 4.

    Gender-responsive implementation and means of implementation

  5. 5.

    Monitoring and reporting

The development of a national-level GAP will encourage cooperation among the countries’ relevant organisations and authorities as the activities associated with the identified GAP priority areas advance gender equality at multiple levels.

3 Strategies to Make Climate Information Services More Gender-Responsive in Africa

Climate information services can be vital to rural farmers’ sustenance management, but they can also promote gender inequities if they do not acknowledge and adequately address women’s needs. According to Gumucio et al. (2020), proper gender-responsive climate information services will strive to address these issues. Five options are recommended to achieve gender-responsive climate services, especially as they relate to African women.

3.1 ICT-Based Communication Channels Suited to Women’s Needs

Several studies (e.g., Gumucio et al., 2020; Huyer, 2016; Jost et al., 2016) report that access to and ownership of ICTs and communication facilities may be restricted for women. Gumucio et al. (2020) found that women with limited funds frequently find it difficult to afford radios and cell phones, and consequently men understand ICT forms more accurately than women. Barriers to ICT ownership handicap women who then have limited access to routine meteorological data and warnings. Interventions aimed at promoting ICT use are fundamental to accessing communication resources.

Women’s access to media-based services may be constrained by household responsibilities. Therefore, understanding women’s preferred communication resources is important when ICT and media are used to distribute climate change information. This calls for utilising local information sources and formats that are accessible to women. It is also useful to discover significant community relationships as women who possess mobile phones can share information obtained with other female family members and acquaintances. An ongoing example in this regard is the project in Rwanda called “Weather patterns services for agriculture,” which uses background research on how men and women manage their assets and access communication channels to create ICT or mainstream press communication tools that let farmers access climate data (Nsengiyumva et al., 2018).

3.2 Women’s Groups and Other Information-Sharing Channels for Communication

Studies have shown that most African women have limited access to climate risk mitigation strategies linked to weather patterns and meteorological alerts due to organisational biases and perceived barriers to official group activities. It has been reported that women’s participation in organisations that share climate information may be constrained by socio-cultural structures and conventions around inter-gender relationships, physical space, and mobility (Gumucio et al., 2020). Cultural beliefs in some African countries prevent women from engaging in social activities and services that offer knowledge and/or training. The inclusion of women’s organisations’ connections to climate information and remote advisory dissemination might aid in addressing this issue.

In some locales, there are some socio-cultural circumstances that prevent a male agricultural extension officer’s interaction with a woman without a male family member’s approval or presence. Therefore, it is pertinent and also a matter of necessity to incorporate women’s organisations as communication channels as an effective method to respond to these discriminatory standards. The Village Knowledge Centre (VKC) (Rengalakshmi et al., 2018) and the Agro-meteorological Advisory Service (AAS) (Gumucio et al., 2020) are examples of local information sources that have helped to sustain women’s information services in Indian villages. According to Huyer et al. (2015), Participatory Action Research (PAR) methodologies can be helpful in identifying group processes and information-sharing media suited to women’s access constraints.

3.3 Local/Civil Society Organisations to Address Women’s Socio-cultural Constraints to Access

Considering the existing norms in some parts of Africa, changes in gender relations at the home and community levels may be necessary to increase equitable rights for male-dominated groups and surroundings. African women have, over time, been side-lined in decision-making related to major climate change mitigation issues, even though studies have shown that women more often experience the negative side of climate change. This is a result of some socio-cultural norms that constrain women’s access to important agricultural inputs such as land. It is, therefore, important to note that improving women’s access to typically male organisations and public domain activities necessitates changes in often deep-seated socio-cultural institutions and practices that must be considered when designing interventions.

To overcome some norms that constrain women’s access to climate information, local and civil society groups are encouraged to increase their involvement in community-wide initiatives affecting gender practices and duties. According to Thompson-Hall et al. (2016), partnerships with regional stakeholders committed to gender awareness will be critical in creating culturally conscious climate information services. For instance, exposure to agricultural production information for women and ethnocultural minority producers in South-east Asia resulted in more equitable gender-based power relations at family and community levels (CARE International, 2010). Collaborative interventions among local civil society groups with expertise in social change processes and evolving gender roles and behaviours are in a position to resolve constraints to access to climate information services.

3.4 Provision of Women’s Climate Information Needs

Given that gender inequalities exist in obtaining meteorological information to inform decision-making, women are more likely than men to experience and struggle to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change (Henriksson et al., 2021). Men have greater access to information than women and other underrepresented groups throughout the majority of Africa, and this is also true for weather and climatic services (Nyasimi et al., 2018). Carr and Onzere (2018) note that gender relations define both the access to power resources and power to make decisions, including the response to weather and climatic information that can be helpful to both men and women. Discriminatory practices related to gender, age, and other socio-economic factors contribute to unsuccessful climate information distribution in Africa.

Considering the already wide gender gap affecting access to climate information in Africa, it is important to acknowledge that the type of climate information that will be most helpful to women and men will vary depending on gendered work roles and obligations, life stage, and ethnicity, all of which influence women’s information requirements and preferences. Therefore, assessing and meeting the information requirements of women will be relevant to the cultural boundaries and must be incorporated into the design of communication strategies.

3.5 Integration of Climate Services with Rural Development Efforts to Address Women’s Resource Constraints

Key challenges to the uptake of agricultural systems, especially as they relate to women in Africa, include inadequate funding, limited agricultural inputs, and insecure land rights (e.g., Goh, 2012). Furthermore, restricted availability to and participation in agricultural decision-making can considerably hinder women’s ability to fully access and utilise climatic knowledge (Gumucio et al., 2020). Carr and Onzere (2018) noted that focusing on the delivery of climate-related information alone will create considerable hurdles for disadvantaged populations that must respond to that information. Climate information services will be actionable for farmers when programmes or policies create pathways that can be fully utilised to blend climate services with rural development efforts.

4 Contemporary Themes, Issues, and Climate-Responsive Pathways

Understanding and responding to climate change in Africa requires the identification of contemporary themes and issues that will guide climate-responsive pathways. This section discusses critical issues and pathways:

4.1 Climate Action by Regional Communities

Africa’s regional groups are driven by both geopolitical competition and climate imperatives. Considering that some countries in a region may lack the capacity to act alone to address climate change and SDG 13, the need to advance joint strategies and tools across regional levels is crucial, even more so regarding adaptation and mitigation. Already, some initiatives are under way across the African continent, focusing on understanding how multilateral groups can address climate action and green innovation. In Africa, there are at least eight regional economic communities (RECs) and overlapping country memberships (Hale, 2022). Reinforcement of these links among regional communities can contribute to scaling climate action. For example, the EAC-SADC-COMESA tripartite represents three regional economic communities’ blocs currently addressing the impact of climate change and seeking to establish effective adaptation and mitigation actions to improve economic and social resilience (COMESA, 2022).

Even though the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) (Briel, 2023), is not inclusive of any treaty commitments on climate change, there is still time to leverage the new agreement to scale climate action. For example, there is a significant possibility to fortify the link between the AfCFTA and the climate action goals of Africa’s Agenda 2063. National AfCFTA plans can align with national climate policies (also known as nationally determined contributions [NDCs]) in the form of trade measures to foster climate action by labelling and certification schemes, classifying climate goods and services, and exempting climate measures from non-tariff barriers (Hale, 2022; Van der Ven & Signé, 2021). In addition, the AfCFTA Secretariat can explore State Parties’ interests by the addition of a Protocol on the Environment and Sustainable Development. In doing so, State Parties would be able to address environmental concerns of particular relevance to building an inclusive and sustainable Africa.

Standards play a crucial role in the design of market products (Hale, 2022). Major standard-setting bodies such as the International Standards Organization (ISO) and other national bodies are currently aligning their standards to climate change goals (Hale, 2022). With the London Declaration of 2021, which defines ISO’s commitment to achieving the climate agenda by 2050 and combat climate change through standards, the ISO has begun aligning its standards with climate targets. For African countries and regional groups, early participation in standard-setting would position African traders at an advantage to conform with the evolving climate-related standards and regulations in foreign export markets. For example, to prevent carbon leakage, the European Union adopted a resolution in 2021 to implement a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism as a part of the European Green Deal. Unfortunately, many African countries are slow in transitioning towards low-carbon economies; rather, they rely more on the exports of carbon-intensive products. To ensure that carbon border measures do not undermine the industrial development in Africa, the regional communities must push for carbon border measures paired with major infrastructural investment initiatives such as the US’s Build Back Better World, the EU’s Global Gateway, and the Belt and Road Initiative.

Since finance is an essential element of exports and imports (e.g., insurance and credit schemes), institutions such as Export Credit Agencies (ECAs) can play a crucial role in financing trade. The African Export and Import Bank (Afreximbank) at the continental level, in collaboration with national ECAs, can support these ECAs in integrating climate policy action into their operations. Through the African Green Innovation Framework and the constitution of a high-level panel, African countries have recognised the need for green innovation (Hale, 2022). While the African Green Innovation Framework includes policy commitments on climate action, there is a growing need to speed up implementation. The launch of the African Green Hydrogen Alliance is an important step towards a viable energy solution for industrial production. There are other sectoral initiatives on cutting-edge technologies that fit well with Africa’s industrialisation aspirations (Hale, 2022). Such initiatives can be coordinated with others, such as the Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda (established at the UN climate change negotiations in 2021), which aims “to make clean technologies and sustainable solutions the most affordable, accessible and attractive option in each emitting sector globally before 2030” (Hale, 2022). A Green Innovation Fund based on revenue streams redirected from developed countries’ carbon border taxes would be invaluable to support these initiatives.

Climate finance can support regional communities in addressing climate change. Developed countries must be encouraged to deliver on climate finance (US$100 billion a year) pledges made in 2009 to address the needs of African countries in terms of meaningful mitigation actions (Savage, 2022). Approximately US$250 billion is required annually to transform Africa to greener technologies and adapt to climate change. Funding in 2020, however, was just US$29.5 billion (Savage, 2022). The EAC-SADC-COMESA tripartite climate initiative is financed via a multi-donor arrangement, including key development partners: the European Union, the Government of Norway, and the UK’s Department for International Development through COMESA. At the regional level, more of such development partners are needed to strengthen the capacity of the regional communities to advance and implement climate change actions. In addition, these efforts can support the development and enactment of climate change bills/policies, as well as the identification and cascade of pertinent national best practices and success stories and subsequently sharing them amongst partner states.

In 2022, the African Union released the continent’s first collective climate response framework: AU’s Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022–2032) (Briel, 2022). Formed to promote an African-led and African-owned climate response, the AU’s ten-year strategic plan document is a key first step for mapping out a regional harmonised response to climate change to foster Africa’s adaptive capacity and unlock transformative climate-resilient development. However, making the strategy a reality across the continent will require a wide range of stakeholders to overcome their resource, capacity, and institutional constraints of moving from planning to implementation (Briel, 2022). Moreover, the vision must garner impetus from member states, other regional communities, and non-state actors. The strategy’s identified climate-related intervention target will only be realisable with specific resource mobilisation and implementation mechanisms. Moving from design to execution will require a strong focus on implementation that factors in the diversity of complementary institutions, plans, and actions across all levels. Gender consideration remains important even as regional governments make their plans.

4.2 Climate Justice and Gender-Centric Policies

“Africa is being devastated by a climate crisis it didn’t cause. COP 27 must help”. Amina J. Mohammed, Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations

As leaders gathered in Egypt for COP27 in November 2022 to discuss climate change, the issue of climate justice was on the front burner. Gender issues must be nested within policy and implementation priorities centred towards climate justice, particularly as Africa canvasses for it, as there is no climate justice without gender justice. Women’s rights activists at the Bali Conference of December 2007 used the slogan “No climate justice without gender justice” as their rallying cry (Terry, 2009). This voice is expected to grow louder in the coming years as women’s groups and advocates for gender equality engage in climate change discussions. Earlier, Bali Principle of Climate Justice, published in 2002 by the International Climate Justice Network, was included as one of its core principles (No. 22)—“Climate Justice affirms the need for solutions that address women’s rights” (Corpwatch, 2002). Climate justice is highly contested and premised on historical injustices that have negated climate protection actions and would require reparation for victims, women included.

Importantly, in all discussions of climate justice, the future should be considered, and a gendered perspective should be incorporated. How can we redress the mistakes of the past? However, gender equality concerns are difficult to introduce when climate change is framed as a problem requiring primarily technical and economic solutions (Maguire, 2019). High transaction costs in the prevailing carbon trading system make it inaccessible to low-income people. Markets are intrinsically gender-inequitable, as many advocates for gender equality have pointed out, due to the unequal distribution of land, credit, and information between men and women. The focus on markets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions discriminates against women (Terry, 2009). However, to ensure that the UNFCCC’s market mechanisms and other practical fixes (such as commoditising voluntary carbon and debt-for-nature swaps) would drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions, we must consider the conceivably catastrophic effects of unchecked climate change on the rights of women. To tackle climate change and environmental injustice related to gender, emphasis can be placed on working with existing mechanisms, such as advocating for Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) projects to be aimed directly at improving poor women’s access to alternative energy services.

4.3 Climate Adaptation and Gender

Climate adaptation mechanisms are methods for dealing with actual and/or predicted outcomes of climate change. Adapting to a changing climate can be a preventative, responsive, or proactive strategy. Adaptation to climate change has coincided with a flurry of new environmental initiatives across Africa (Epule et al., 2017). Households need short-term and immediate assistance from climate adaptation mechanisms if they are to thrive during climatic shocks. While adapting to climate change is a viable option for rural residents—and there are many positive strategies for preparing for a changing climate—there are also potential drawbacks that must be considered (Enríquez-de-Salamanca et al., 2017).

In recent years, there has been considerable emphasis on adaptation strategies critical to ensuring that vulnerable populations can deal with various intensities and types of climate change. Research findings have provided insights into the biophysical and economic factors as well as unique social characteristics that shape attitudes and reactions. Gender inequalities and other forms of societal differentiation and stratification have been shown to impede adaptive capacity and decision-making (Adzawla et al., 2019). It is well established that women suffer disproportionately more from climate change-related consequences than men. Cultural beliefs, social biases, and political discrimination all make it difficult for women to advance in the workplace (Eastin, 2018). As a group, women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change due to their disproportionately high poverty rates.

When discussing climate change and its effects on agriculture, global and local issues are inextricably linked and frequently presented as causes and consequences (Acosta et al., 2021; Faiyetole & Adesina, 2017). Agricultural and forestry practices and land-use changes account for roughly a quarter of all man-made greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2019). However, due to the location-specific nature of climate change’s effects on agriculture, localised solutions are regarded as critical for effective adaptation and mitigation strategies (UNDP, 2019). Given that women’s roles are highly contextual, socially determined, and constantly evolving over time, a greater emphasis on community is regarded as equally important. To avoid developing adaptive technologies that are inappropriate for the context or that may perpetuate pre-existing gender inequalities, valuing local knowledge is critical to decision-making regarding climate change adaptation (Huyer, 2016).

Making decisions about adapting to climate change is typically folded into ongoing local government planning and implementation rather than functioning as an independent body. Whether it is its own decision-making process or a part of a larger developmental framework, local climate adaptation can be broken down into five distinct but interconnected stages, as proposed by Edvardsson and Hansson (2013). In addition, each of the five steps of local adaptation requires a focus on gender equity:

  1. 1)

    Recognise risks, vulnerabilities, and opportunities.

  2. 2)

    Establish adaptation objectives and criteria.

  3. 3)

    Identify adaptation options.

  4. 4)

    Assess adaptation options (including identification of conflicts and synergies).

  5. 5)

    Implement, monitor, and evaluate.

Empirical evidence suggests that the effects of climate change will be felt more acutely by women than by men. Although more pronounced in developing nations, this gender-based vulnerability is not absent in developed countries. Policy interventions in the form of adaptations can mitigate a portion of the dangers brought on by climate change; however, if they are not carefully crafted, adaptation measures may contribute to maintaining conventional gender inequalities and increasing women’s susceptibility to climate change. A gender-sensitive approach to adaptation planning is needed to prevent this kind of maladaptation, and this can be demonstrated by expanding upon existing adaptation policy frameworks.

4.4 Climate Finance Insufficiency

Africa needs about US$2.8tn by 2030 to help keep global warming below 1.5 Celsius and mitigate its effects (Mohammed, 2022). However, the entire continent received only about US$30 billion of the global climate finance funds allocated in 2020 (Mohammed, 2022), underscoring a significant resource gap (Mohammed, 2022). For various stakeholder groups to access, administer, and mobilise climate finance efficiently, it is essential first to determine the extent to which developing economies require climate finance. The availability of adequate financial resources is essential for achieving economic transformation towards a low-carbon, climate-resilient future. The Paris Agreement states explicitly that “financial flows shall be aligned with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions.”

Bhandary et al. (2021) allude to the reality that the insufficiency of quantifiable incentives, the refusal of most for-profit firms to internalise environmental externalities, low or unquantifiable returns to corporate social responsibility practices, preconceptions of high risks of low-carbon technological advances on the portion of the banking industry and other mainstream financiers, a discrepancy between long-term payback periods and the riskiness of investments, and a lack of political will are all factors that have worked against the mobilisation of private finance to address climate change finance at the global north and south divides where Africa is negated to such climate financing discrepancies.

Despite making relatively small contributions to the global warming crisis, the world’s least developed countries are among the most susceptible to its effects. An ever-expanding network of multilateral institutions, bilateral governments, and non-governmental organisations provides climate finance (Hirsch, 2021). In sub-Saharan Africa, women, like their male counterparts, are affected by climate change extremes affecting their well-being and efforts towards climate resilience, yet they are systematically excluded from access to climate-related funding available to men (Martín Casas & Remalia Sanogo, 2022). Gendering climate change financing explicitly negates the female gender to further climate consequences.

Four barriers to accessing climate finance have been identified through Africa’s Green Climate Fund:

  1. 1.

    Complex accreditation processes: One of the most frequently cited obstacles to gaining access to climate finance is the lengthy and difficult accreditation process for the Green Climate Fund (GCF). As an example, due to the GCF’s stringent fiduciary principles, environmental and social safeguards that are tailored to the private sector, and other legal and formal requirements, small climate organisations (CSOs) in developing countries face a disproportionate disadvantage in the accreditation process (GCF, 2020). The GCF accreditation process is not only difficult but also time consuming, and the likelihood of a proposal being funded is low.

  2. 2.

    Requirements and gender considerations: Eligibility inequities, such as asset ownership, business skills, information access, and membership in cooperatives, make it harder for women and women’s groups to access climate financing (Atmadja et al., 2020). Though most global climate funds now include gender policies or gender action plans, these are often insufficient. Mechanisms have yet to show substantially improved engagement and sustainable participation from women’s organisations at the grassroots level (Cooper Hall et al., 2019). Women’s organisations still bear the brunt of adapting to the requirements and frameworks of funding systems. Gender parity must be systematically incorporated into all facets and levels of a fund. Governance is needed to incorporate public participation mechanisms (including women’s representative groups) to set funding priorities and design, implement, monitor, and evaluate projects (Schalatek, 2020).

  3. 3.

    Political, technical, and financial factors: Because of the GCF’s emphasis on country ownership, country “support,” and no-objection approaches, climate organisations with a local presence must have the full endorsement of the central government before they can submit an application for funding (Hirsch, 2021). This requires mutual trust between the government and these groups; unfortunately, this is not a given in many developing nations. However, accessing some GCF funding is challenging due to the technical requirements, lengthy application process, and associated costs. Given their limited resources, locally based climate organisations appear to be disproportionately affected by a lack of clarity in the discussions as well as the assumed preference of the GCF to provide concessional loans rather than grants, combined with a great leverage effect on private finance.

  4. 4.

    Fund design and metrics of success: Many funds prioritise large-scale projects over local services because of their investment strategies. Traditional financing intermediaries (such as multilateral development banks) are less able to finance small-scale projects directly because of the high transaction costs. Despite the availability of a variety of innovative financial instruments, few have been used, suggesting a low tolerance for risk. Local management capacity is often a limiting factor (Price, 2021). CSO’s engagement with multilateral climate funds can be complicated by a number of factors, including the GCF’s complex language and modalities, limited access to GCF information and knowledge, and a lack of capacity support or resources to engage with the fund.

5 Research Opportunities and Knowledge Gaps

It is worth noting that there are numerous scholarships available to support the study of the gendered effects of climate change all over the world, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. More research is required to fully understand the diverse consequences of global warming and the requirements of small-scale farmers around the globe for adjustment and recovery. This is particularly important within the context of gender dynamics.

This book identifies significant evidence gaps and potential focus points for responding to the gender-related effects of climate change in Africa. It also identifies research possibilities for the establishment of local climate services that cater to gender-based connectivity and usage concerns. More detailed knowledge of household-level gender disparities and interactions will be necessary in order to prioritise and package gender-responsive policies and activities in Africa. Increased analysis of gender inequalities will be critical to learning how climate services will contribute to an entrepreneurial ecosystem for women’s rights. The following knowledge gaps were identified in the course of the study.

5.1 Gender-Differentiated Demand and Benefits

There is a glaring disparity between the ways that women and men profit from using climate services. These disparities can be attributed to cultural, socio-economic, and institutional factors intertwined with changes in weather patterns (Shackleton et al., 2015). Although extant literature (e.g., CARE International, 2010) indicates that women and men farmers’ needs for knowledge vary in relevance to their decision-making and risk mitigation, further research into gender-differentiated demands will be necessary to provide a more thorough understanding of gender-based challenges, particularly as they impact access. There is a need for more research into how men and women are affected by or respond to the adverse effects of climate change in Africa. Such research will aid in predicting the consequences of science-based interventions, rights to productive assets, and decision-making authority in the household.

5.2 The Impact of Climate Services on Women’s Involvement in Decision-Making

Women, especially those in Africa, can overcome climate change challenges if periodic weather-related projections are available to help in the creation of risk-reduction measures that can be adjusted to fluctuations. Like their male counterparts, female farmers can make educated agricultural decisions when they have access to and a clear understanding of meteorological and climatic information (Clifford et al., 2020). When males are no longer the exclusive decision-makers, women will benefit from their greater participation in farming decision-making and will be perceived as more than just farm labourers (Rengalakshmi et al., 2018). Going forward, more detailed effect analyses of variations in women’s and men’s involvement in farming and family choice as a result of access to climate information products will be critical to understanding how climate services may support women’s empowerment.

Since gender roles in the home are ever changing, that is, when men no longer make all of the families’ decisions, the systems of norms and conduct in households in the crop, livestock, and pastoral societies require greater attention. Research is needed to understand the impact of climate change on the distribution of productive assets and rights to female family members.

5.3 Success Stories of Interventions That Enhance Women’s Capacity to Act on Climate Information

There are few studies into the influence of women’s access to climate-related knowledge and how they utilise it in decision-making. Documentation of potential enabling variables and processes would contribute to a knowledge base on access inequities as well as initiatives and processes that have improved women’s access to climate information (Gumucio et al., 2020). A related question is whether women confront more severe, gender-based structural barriers to acting on climate information.

5.4 Combination of Communication Processes Best Suited for Women

A review of research on women’s access to and usage of ICT will aid in the identification of more gender-responsive channels of communication, although previous studies have highlighted the challenges to the effective use of ICT by men and women. Other channels may be more suitable to facilitate women’s interpretation and application of complicated kinds of information, even though ICTs may be useful for specific types and timelines of information. Women may value the chance to talk with information mediators such as village meteorological office officials and local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in person.

5.5 Gender Interaction with Other Socio-economic Factors to Shape Information Needs

According to Nyasimi et al. (2018), factors such as levels of capital assets, schooling, travel, and property ownership contribute to shaping access preferences and information needs. Other studies (e.g., Carr & Owusu-Daaku, 2016; Cherotich et al., 2012; Roncoli et al., 2009) found that the interaction between gender and socio-economic characteristics like age, status, and race can significantly impact the roles that women and men play in family decision-making. Differentiating between inherent features of women and male farmers can help determine their information requirements and preferred methods of delivery.

5.6 Local Knowledge Within Decision-Making Processes

Since local knowledge plays a vital role in decision-making at every stage of life, this book has urged greater research into how gender interactions with other socio-economic variables inform evidence-based targeting of policies and interventions of gender-related access to climate information. It is important for future research studies to be influenced by a thorough and receptive grasp of how the important variable of local attitudes and practices regarding gender roles informs decision-making processes.

5.7 Social Justice and Equity Risk of Climate Change

Since it is important to understand how socio-economic, political, and cultural systems interact with the biophysical process to originate, maintain, and spread gender-differentiated effects, there is an urgent need for research that focuses on social justice and equity risk of climate change, especially to women in Africa.

Finally, it must be emphasised that business schools have a crucial role to play in preparing leaders to make an impact in solving Africa’s climate-related problems and ensuring commitment to preserving natural resources and the biodiversity business sector, acknowledging the climate emergency, and ensuring a green and clean transition. Interestingly, in the last quarter of 2022, six leading business schools in Africa launched Business Schools for Climate Leadership Africa (BS4CL Africa) to build a collaborative framework for climate action capable of transforming business education curricula to match the needs and adapt to the realities of Africa (University World News, 2022). Participating schools include the School of Business at the American University in Cairo, Egypt; ESCA Ecole de Management (ESCA School of Management) in Morocco; the Lagos Business School in Nigeria; the School of Tourism and Hospitality at Strathmore University, Kenya; and the Gordon Institute of Business Science and the Stellenbosch Business School, both in South Africa (University World News, 2022). The initiative is supported by the Association of African Business Schools (AABS), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME) at the United Nations Global Compact and the PRME chapter in Africa. We believe it is a step in the right direction and are hopeful that gender and climate change will be a priority as the initiative takes shape.

6 Conclusion

Despite scholarship devoted to the gender gap in farming and global warming, gender parity can still be regarded as less inclusive in agricultural and green policies. Given the contemporary environmental hazards prevalent in Africa today, implementing policies and keeping track of gender results with sex-disaggregated data should be emphasised, and women’s peculiarities acknowledged. It is, therefore, important to create and implement policies that take into account women’s efforts in order to close the gender disparity gap in Africa.

In almost all developing nations, especially in Africa, unstable land tenure, industrial equipment, limited finance, and restricted agricultural inputs have been identified as key impediments to women farmers’ ability to adopt proven ecological principles and forest management. Therefore, the experiences, knowledge, and realities of both women and men should be included in any potential mitigating measures. Climate change impacts and related adaptation measures are not gender-neutral because susceptibility is typically dictated by socio-economic conditions, livelihoods, capabilities, and access to information. It is essential that capacity-building knowledge is made available to all users—men and women, boys and girls—as ways and means, including technologies, are established to improve resilience.

Women may find it challenging to use adaptation methods in the face of climate change due to persistently ingrained traditional gender norms. Without an awareness of how new climate-smart techniques and processes may impact gender roles and tasks in families and communities, the deployment of climate-smart technologies may fail to assist women and may even reinforce existing inequities. The use of collaborative methods that encourage change in the interests of women and marginalised groups is essential for stemming the effects of gender norms and community power dynamics.

Therefore, policies that advocate meaningful strategies for addressing gender issues tied to the effects of climate change must take into consideration economic, social, and cultural realities within Africa. Nations are challenged to design adaptive interventions acceptable to both women and men; conduct gender analysis to identify specific climate vulnerabilities; adopt vulnerability-reduction initiatives, particularly for women in rural areas; and consider how technological innovation can address the negative impact of climate change. Finally, groups charged with decision-making regarding climate adaptation and mitigation programmes must unfailingly incorporate women to ensure adequate and diverse representation, thereby empowering women to make policies that directly impact their gender and children.