Abstract
A successful social revolution requires transformative change in all three realms of social life: political, economic, and cultural. This chapter examines what the pursuit of those goals might look like in the USA today. This chapter begins with a focus on the political realm and, more specifically, post-revolutionary constitutional design. An argument is made for, among other structural changes, a more proportional system of representation for the House of Representatives. Turning to the socioeconomic realm, this chapter emphasizes the goal (and challenges) of achieving and sustaining an egalitarian (i.e., post-class) society. That is followed by a look at revolutionary objectives in the cultural realm, focusing on the transition from neoliberalism to libertarian social democracy as well as post-imperialism foreign policy.
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Notes
- 1.
Many essential reforms were implied by the policy problems mentioned in the previous chapter. However, it can also be useful to list them more explicitly. For instance, Robert Reich (2015, pp. 191–8, 214) argues that a new broad-based coalition in the USA should seek the following reforms:
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Overturning Citizens United v. FEC and implementing a system of public campaign finance
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Banning political district gerrymandering and eliminating barriers to voting
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Eliminating the revolving door between government and the corporate sector
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Disclosure requirements for Think Tanks
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New regulations on the pharmaceutical industry to bring down prices
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Revitalizing antitrust to reduce the political influence of the wealthy and corporations
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Restoring the Glass-Steagall Act and financial sector regulations
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Stricter bans on insider trading
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Allowing students to declare bankruptcy
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Raising the minimum wage and tying it to inflation
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Empowering workers from various sectors to form unions
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More evenhanded trade agreements, including “a world-class re-employment system”
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Ensuring adequate resources for the enforcement of laws and regulations
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Prioritizing educational resources for public schools in poorer districts
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Promoting direct worker ownership of corporations, including cooperatives
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A guaranteed minimum income to increase economic independence
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- 2.
According to Lawson (2019, p. 88), in the near term, revolutionary success is determined by the ability to seize state power long enough to implement revolutionary changes, while in the longer term, revolutionary success involves institutionalizing the new political, economic, and symbolic order. My view corresponds roughly with that understanding, with the caveat added about the potential for revolutionary success without state power. That is, from the perspective of libertarian social democracy, a revolutionary outcome that fully dissolves state power might be equal liberty maximizing, but not necessarily.
- 3.
Revolutionaries have tended to favor establishing a new state to preserve their movement’s achievements (see Eckstrand, 2022, p. 170). Similarly, I will focus below on what a new US constitution might look like after a successful social revolution. However, it should be noted that a decentralized outcome (without a central power) could potentially realize a higher level of equal liberty than a new state, and this possibility should be considered as part of the deliberations among individuals and groups participating in the revolutionary movement.
- 4.
- 5.
A potential benefit of a newer constitution is that it can more closely approximate the ideal of achieving widespread consent (in contrast to older constitutions approved by deceased generations). Another downside to having an older constitution is that such documents were designed without the benefit of hindsight – that is, without knowledge of how such institutions have fared in other countries (Taylor et al., 2014, pp. 314–5). A contrary view contends that frequent constitutional changes make it harder to establish a democratic culture. In the words of Magone (2019, p. 21), “One factor that may determine a higher level of democratic culture in any one particular country is the longevity of the constitution.” From that perspective, longer lasting constitutions might be preferred to newer ones.
- 6.
Although Thomas Jefferson owned slaves and held colonialist perspectives (Dunbar-Ortiz, 2014, p. 3), his call for frequent constitutional change is arguably a useful reference when arguing for revolutionary change in the USA today, so long as the disavowal of racism is clear.
- 7.
Street, P. (2017, June 11). Impeach the U.S. Constitution. Truth Dig. https://www.truthdig.com/articles/impeach-the-u-s-constitution-2/
- 8.
As a revolutionary mass movement gains momentum, political elites would probably advance a number of policy concessions, potentially even radical reforms, if they felt threatened enough by that movement. As Wetzel (2022, p. 104) observes, “To keep opposition at manageable levels, the state leaders may try to make concessions to mass opinion in periods of rising social strife.” However, achieving revolutionary objectives (including the establishment of a new constitution) would be essential for advancing any remaining radical reforms needed to address the various policy problems at their root.
- 9.
For a comprehensive comparison of these and other topics among the USA and other democracies, see Taylor et al. (2014).
- 10.
Taylor et al. (2014) distinguish between veto gates (e.g., an upper legislative chamber, the presidency, and subnational polities) and veto players (e.g., a party whose consent is required to advance a bill within a single legislative chamber).
- 11.
Associated Press. (2020, June 24). Senate Democrats Block GOP Police Bill, Calling It Insufficient. The Dallas Morning News. https://www.dallasnews.com/news/politics/2020/06/24/senate-democrats-block-gop-police-reform-bill-calling-it-insufficient/
- 12.
Democracy Now. (2021, September 23). Police Reform Legislation Collapses after Bipartisan Talks Fail to Reach Agreement. https://www.democracynow.org/2021/9/23/headlines/police_reform_legislation_collapses_after_bipartisan_talks_fail_to_reach_agreement
- 13.
Binder, S. A. (2000, December 1). Going Nowhere: A Gridlocked Congress. Brookings Institute. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/going-nowhere-a-gridlocked-congress/
- 14.
In line with this definition, according to Althusius (1995 [1614], p. 181), “A faction is a conspiracy or union of a few or of many in dissension with other citizens.”
- 15.
If people did naturally tend toward faction (as James Madison argued), a stronger case for decentralist institutions could be made. However, consistent with the normally distributed (“bell curve”) view of human nature described in Chap. 3, a more moderate constitution (along the spectrum from centralism to decentralism) seems most conducive to the pursuit of equal liberty: It still includes some safeguards against faction, yet also allows for and promotes the idea that people are capable of pursuing the common good from behind a veil of ignorance (and thus should be empowered to govern by centralist institutions).
- 16.
According to Wolin (2008, p. 236), President George W. Bush took the practice of signing statements “and converted it into a sweeping claim that he can ignore provisions of a bill with which he disagrees.”
- 17.
A recent example of a US president using their powers in an authoritarian fashion is arguably Trump’s placement of federal agents in Portland to police the Black Lives Matter protests in Summer 2020. For a discussion of that topic, see Goitein, E. (2020, June 2). Yes, Trump can deploy troops to suppress protests. The Boston Globe. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/06/02/opinion/yes-trump-can-deploy-troops-suppress-protests/
- 18.
For a review of mid-twentieth-century Cointelpro activities, the Church Committee Report (particularly Book II) is a useful resource. United States Senate. (1976, April 26). Report of Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, 94th Congress. Retrieved July 26, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Committee
- 19.
In parliamentary systems, legislatures tend to be “policy influencing” rather than “policymaking,” as the governing cabinet is responsible for drafting and introducing legislation. By contrast, given the independence of the US Congress from the Presidency, the Congress can be described as “policy making” (Magone, 2019, pp. 176–7). Although legislatures may have more independence to introduce legislation in a presidential system, the presidential veto still places a severe constraint on legislative power, while the “vote of no confidence” in a parliamentary system constrains the executive in parliamentary systems.
- 20.
Francis, D. (2019, October 18). Parliament Over Presidents. The American Interest. https://www.the-american-interest.com/2019/10/18/parliament-over-presidents/
- 21.
In the USA, state powers are recognized in the 10th Amendment of the federal constitution, which reads: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.”
- 22.
Wikipedia. (n.d.). 2020 Venezuelan parliamentary election. Retrieved June 20, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Venezuelan_parliamentary_election#Electoral_system
- 23.
Perlman, D., & Jordan, A. (2021, June 8). Why we should abolish the Senate. Counter Punch. https://www.counterpunch.org/2021/06/08/why-we-should-abolish-the-senate/
- 24.
Historically, among the first generation of state-level constitutions in the USA, those of Georgia, Pennsylvania, and Vermont were unicameral (Smith & Greenblatt, 2014, p. 66). Currently, the assembly of the State of Nebraska is unicameral as well.
- 25.
Similar to the idea of federalism, the principle of subsidiarity, supported in the nineteenth century by Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin and today enshrined in the founding documents of the European Union, calls for maximizing local decision-making autonomy in public affairs. Even so, Colin Ward wrote that “we are still very far from a Europe of the Regions,” adding that, “the obstacle […] is the nation state.” Ward, C. (1992). The Anarchist Sociology of Federalism. Nothingness Archive. Retrieved August 11, 2021, from http://library.nothingness.org/articles/anar/en/display/334
- 26.
A potential critique of this vision is that, even after a successful social revolution, it would be difficult for a democratic polity to act swiftly, as one, to make as many political decisions as are implied by the vision of anarchism described in this book. A rejoinder to that critique might highlight the expedited collective decision among the demos in a unicameral parliamentary setting. Another possibility that might be explored is internet voting, which, should (given a reduction in the cost of voting) make it easier to achieve widespread political participation on a regular basis. For example, during the 2000 Arizona Democratic Party primary, given the options of voting by mail, in-person, or online, most voters cast a ballot online, and the election saw a record increase in turnout, especially among the young (James, 2012, p. 35). In 2007, Estonia became the first nation-state to hold binding parliamentary elections through the Internet. “Academic observers suggested that the scheme [in Estonia] did appear to work well, but this was due to the small size of the state, the high degree of centralization, and the less partisan nature of elections” (ibid, p. 1).
- 27.
Another interesting question that is not addressed here but that might be considered part of the revolutionary project is whether the current set of boundaries among the 50 states should be kept intact or altered, either fundamentally or in more minor ways. Such matters could be deliberated on in independent revolutionary assemblies (discussed in Chap. 8). For a brief discussion of the topic, see De Chant, Tim. (2011, November 16). Redrawing the United States of America. Scientific American. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/redrawing-the-united-states-of-america/
- 28.
I don’t intend to discuss here the different types of federalism that have been identified throughout US history: dual, cooperative or “marble-cake,” centralized, or new federalism (see Smith & Greenblatt, 2014, Ch. 2 for a discussion).
- 29.
Under closed-list PR systems, voters simply choose their preferred political party. By contrast, in an open-list PR system, voters choose their preferred political party and can also rank-order candidates from that party list on the ballot. However, I tend to favor closed-list over open-list systems, as the latter incentivizes the pursuit of narrow interests among candidates who compete for name recognition.
- 30.
Duverger’s Law emphasizes two mechanisms. First, the “mechanical effect” of electoral systems concerns how votes are translated into seats. Especially important in that regard is the district magnitude (i.e., the number of seats per legislative district). For instance, under SMDP, the candidate with the largest popular vote share acquires the seat. By contrast, under party-list PR, geographically large multimember districts are used, allowing for a more proportional distribution of seats across parties. The second is the “psychological effect” of electoral systems. For instance, the mechanical effect of SMDP systems causes voters to choose one of the two major party candidates to avoid the spoiler effect, where voting for the most preferred minor party candidate actually helps the less preferred major party candidate. By contrast, under a party-list PR system, voters feel freer to vote for their most preferred party (even a minor one).
- 31.
For a discussion about the rifts within the Democratic and Republican parties in the context of the 2016 presidential primary race, see: Zogby, J. (2016, February 19). The Possible End of Both Political Parties. Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/sites/johnzogby/2016/02/19/democrats-and-republicans-rip/
- 32.
According to Singer (1999, p. 256), “In the United States […] there is one party in two reincarnations, and everything is being done, by law and otherwise, to prevent a third one from disturbing the consensus.” In the USA, the SMDP “winner-takes-all” electoral system has provided stability to the two-party system since the second party system broke down in the 1850s (Oestreicher, 1988). Other barriers to third-party development include state-level rules limiting access to the ballot (Schubert et al., 2014, p. 144), and the ability of the major parties to coopt the electorate’s changing views (Reich, 2015, p. 189).
- 33.
In a similar vein, Glen Greenwald explains that “Allowing third parties and four-party candidates into the debate, who would then call into question US posture toward Israel or the drug war or the criminal justice system or a whole variety of other issues where both parties agree, including trade, would open up the range of issues that Americans start questioning and start thinking about and start challenging, that they never think about now because the two major parties agree.” Greenwald, G. (2016, August 31). A New McCarthyism: Greenwald on Clinton Camp’s Attempts to Link Trump, Stein & WikiLeaks to Russia. Democracy Now. http://www.democracynow.org/2016/8/31/a_new_mccarthyism_greenwald_on_clinton
- 34.
It will be argued in the next chapter that, under a ruling class (as in the USA today), voter turnout is problematic in that it shores up legitimacy for the political system. However, this same problem will not exist in the aftermath of a successful social revolution, at which time voter turnout would be more conducive to equal liberty. In a similar vein, discussing how a truly socialist society might function, Sam Gindin refers to “contested elections revolving around a future direction which – because of its importance and genuine openness to public direction – would hopefully bring the widest popular participation.” Gindin, S. (2019, March 6). We Need to Say What Socialism Will Look Like. Jacobin. https://www.jacobinmag.com/2019/03/sam-gindin-socialist-planning-models
- 35.
Drutman, L. (2021, June 16). Why the two-party system is wrecking American democracy. FiveThirtyEight. https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/why-the-two-party-system-is-wrecking-american-democracy/
- 36.
Electoral system permissiveness concerns the ease with which minor parties can acquire seats in the legislature. Thus, PR electoral systems can be described as more permissive than majoritarian systems, as a smaller percentage of the popular vote is required to acquire legislative seats.
- 37.
Political scientists often assume that, if one party wins many consecutive elections, the elections are probably not free and fair. However, it is also possible that, in a democracy with a permissive electoral system, a society has achieved and sustained a high level of consensus behind the program of a single party, indicating that political division has been largely overcome in that polity.
- 38.
According to Micah White (2016, p. 16), “Our purpose in launching Occupy was the creation of a mass protest that could reverse the recent U.S. Supreme Court’s Citizens United ruling (2010) that granted corporations and labour unions the right to spend unlimited amounts of money influencing elections.” However, Occupy Wall Street “quickly devolved into so many generalized critiques that it ultimately appeared to be without concrete demands” (p. 111). Thus, White refers to “The refusal, and inability, to reach consensus on ‘our one demand’” (p. 38).
- 39.
Giglio, M. (2021, Jan. 10). A Mob Attacked the Capital for Trump. Now What? The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2021/01/10/capitol-riot-far-right/
- 40.
District magnitudes in PR systems can range from two-seat (e.g., Chile’s Chamber of Deputies) or five-seat districts (e.g., the National Assembly of Wales) up to a very permissive single nation-wide multimember district for the entire parliament (e.g., the Israeli Knesset).
- 41.
Thomas Quinn (2015) argues that it is not much easier to “vote the rascals out” under SMDP, challenging one of the main arguments for two-party systems.
- 42.
Drutman, L. (2018, September 17). How much longer can the two-party system hold? Vox. https://www.vox.com/polyarchy/2018/9/17/17870478/two-party-system-electoral-reform
- 43.
Hartig, H., & Perry, S. (2017, November 29). Millennial poll: Strong majority want a third political party. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/millennial-poll-strong-majority-want-third-political-party-n824526
- 44.
Haltiwanger, J. (2017, September 27). Most Americans Desperate for Third Major Political Party in Trump Era. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/most-americans-desperate-third-major-political-party-trump-era-672540
- 45.
Lange, J. (2018, January 17). Americans have enormous faith in the military, very little in public schools. The Week. http://theweek.com/speedreads/749184/americans-have-enormous-faith-military-little-public-schools
- 46.
Mercer, M. (2019, July 1). Progress Stalls for Minor Parties to Get on State Ballots. The Pew Charitable Trusts. https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2019/07/01/progress-stalls-for-minor-parties-to-get-on-state-ballots
- 47.
There are three types of Ranked Choice Voting (RCV) electoral systems. Instant Runoff Voting (IRV), also called the Alternative Vote, is a single-member district majority system and is the most common form of RCV in the USA. The other two types of RCV are used in multimember districts: block-preferential voting and Single-Transferable Vote (STV) (McCarthy & Santucci, 2021). See also: Center for Election Science. (2019, July 29). Three Alternative Voting Methods: Pros and Cons. https://www.givingcompass.org/article/alternative-voting-methods-pros-cons/
- 48.
Hoffman, B. (2018, June 15). Maine Passes “People’s Veto” to Overturn Legislature and Preserve Popular New Voting System. American Civil Liberties Union. https://www.aclu.org/blog/voting-rights/maine-passes-peoples-veto-overturn-legislature-and-preserve-popular-new-voting
- 49.
WGME. (2020, October 1). Maine Supreme Court denies ranked-choice voting appeal. https://wgme.com/news/local/maine-supreme-court-denies-ranked-choice-voting-appeal
- 50.
Vasilogambros, M. (2021, March 12). Ranked-Choice Voting Gains Momentum Nationwide. The Pew Charitable Trusts. https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2021/03/12/ranked-choice-voting-gains-momentum-nationwide
- 51.
Jilani, Z., & Gray, B. (2018, August 10). Democrats Complain about Green Party “Spoilers”, but Few in Congress Back a Solution: Ranked-Choice Voting. The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2018/08/10/ohio-special-election-ranked-choice-voting/
- 52.
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Fair Representation Act (United States). Retrieved January 12, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Representation_Act_(United_States)#Legislative_history
- 53.
Hamlin, A. (2022, September 16). RCV Fools Palin Voters into Electing a Progressive Democrat. Election Science. https://electionscience.org/commentary-analysis/rcv-fools-palin-voters-into-electing-a-progressive-democrat/
- 54.
PR systems do get somewhat more complicated upon closer examination of the electoral formulas used to translate votes into seats. At the most basic level, one can distinguish between quota and divisor-based PR electoral formulas (Clark et al., 2013, p. 567). However, voters don’t necessarily need to understand those formulas to cast an informed vote for their preferred party on the ballot. On the other hand, one could also argue that IRV ballots are fairly simple to use.
- 55.
A more permissive PR system (i.e., one that allows even very small parties to acquire legislative seats, say, with a 1% representation threshold) would probably allow for more evanescent parties and fluid coalitions than a less permissive PR system (with, say, a 5% threshold). Still, even a highly permissive PR system would presumably be more party-based than a lottocratic system.
- 56.
In this sense, party systems might also help to address the critique (noted previously) that it would be difficult for a democratic transitionary society to act swiftly, and collectively, to make the many political decisions implied by the vision of anarchism described in this book.
- 57.
For example, in the east Indian state of Jharkhand, democracy by sortition is often used in villages such as Munda but not at the inter-village level (Shah, 2021, p. 12).
- 58.
Anarchists tend to be skeptical about the potential benefits of democratic institutional choices such as electoral and party systems. For example, in The Conquest of Bread, Kropotkin (2015 [1892], p. 154) writes, “democracies of all countries vainly imagine various palliatives. The referendum is tried and found to be a failure; proportional representation is spoken of, the representation of minorities, and other parliamentary utopias. […A]fter each new experiment they are bound to recognize that it was a failure.”
- 59.
Reflecting this concern, in the autonomous zone of Cherán, Mexico, elections and political parties are viewed as violent and divisive, and political party propaganda is strictly prohibited (Campbell, 2020, pp. 184–5). However, the region of Cherán is also much more homogenous and anarchistic than most countries as a whole, and thus better prepared to abolish the party system within their locality.
- 60.
Commenting on the role of political leadership after a successful democratic socialist revolution, Sam Gindin observes plausibly that “Democracy alone doesn’t guarantee that socialism won’t be stalled or reversed. Its advance will continue to depend on the role of a party or parties – in office or out – who are committed to the most ambitious of socialism’s long-term egalitarian, participative, and developmental goals.” Gindin, S. (2019, March 6). We Need to Say What Socialism Will Look Like. Jacobin. https://www.jacobinmag.com/2019/03/sam-gindin-socialist-planning-models
- 61.
Hopkins, C. J. (2018, May 23). The Simulation of Democracy. Counter Punch. https://www.counterpunch.org/2018/05/23/the-simulation-of-democracy/
- 62.
Disslbacher, F., & Mokre, P. (2020, June 15). What the latest Household Finance and Consumption Survey tells us about wealth inequality in Europe. London School of Economics. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2020/06/15/what-the-latest-household-finance-and-consumption-survey-tells-us-about-wealth-inequality-in-europe/
- 63.
Associated Press. (2021, November 19). Kyle Rittenhouse Cleared of All Charges in Kenosha Shootings. WDET. https://wdet.org/2021/11/19/kyle-rittenhouse-cleared-of-all-charges-in-kenosha-shootings/
- 64.
National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty. (n.d.). Racial Bias. Retrieved January 12, 2022, from https://www.ncadp.org/pages/racial-bias
- 65.
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Cointelpro. Retrieved January 12, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cointelpro#Program_revealed
- 66.
Related to the distribution of political power, Albertus and Menaldo (2018) evaluate whether a country’s democratic constitution was initially drafted in a “popular” way (i.e., by the people) or by elites to secure their own privileges. They find that, of all the democratic transitions between 1800 and 2006, 66% inherited a constitution designed by the outgoing elites, while the other 34% became popular (or egalitarian) democracies. Sweden, for instance, is described as an example of egalitarian democracy by Albertus and Menaldo and also scores very high on the egalitarian democracy index constructed by Sigman and Lindberg (2019, Fig. 3).
- 67.
The three dimensions Sigman and Lindberg use to measure egalitarianism seem conceptually valid and were thus used to organize the foregoing discussion. However, Sigman and Lindberg do not use a direct indicator of inequality to measure the equal distribution of resources. Instead, they examine whether welfare, education, and health care are provided in a targeted (inegalitarian) or universal (egalitarian) way. This might explain why the USA achieves a high .85/1 egalitarianism score in their index, which would seem to lack face validity. Sigman and Lindberg might reply that inequality is an outcome, not a public policy, and should thus not be used as an indicator of egalitarian democracy. However, I am focusing on egalitarianism as a socioeconomic rather than a political-institutional concept.
- 68.
Petersen, G. M. (2017, July 28). The French Revolution, Property Rights, and the Coase Theorem with Noel Johnson. The Economics Detective. https://economicsdetective.com/2017/07/french-revolution-property-rights-coase-theorem-noel-johnson/
- 69.
Discussing participatory socialism, Piketty (2020, p. 969) writes, “The proposals I examine here derive from the democratic socialist tradition, notably the emphasis I place on transcending private ownership and involving workers and their representatives in corporate governance (a practice that has already played an important role in German and Nordic social democracy).”
- 70.
As explained by Wetzel (2022, p. 357), a non-state participatory socialist economic system could incentivize worker contributions through vouchers or “entitlements to consume.” However, to my knowledge, this could not include (fully fungible) monetary paychecks, which would require statist coercive taxation to fund.
- 71.
As was explained in Chap. 3, an equal liberty maximizing mixed economy would include a blend of public and private economic spheres. While the private sphere would include free markets, it would not be accurate to describe that part of the economy as capitalism, which, according to Graeber and Wengrow (2021, p. 178), involves “constant reinvestment, turning one’s wealth into an engine for creating ever more wealth.” As was also argued in Chap. 3, the existence of quality job opportunities in a democratically managed public economic sphere would provide the primary brake on the accumulation of capital under libertarian socialist democracy.
- 72.
As was emphasized in Chap. 1, this argument can be distinguished from Marxist and class struggle anarchist perspectives, which tend to argue that economic systems allowing for free enterprise will eventually give way to capitalist accumulation of wealth and political power and a “dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.”
- 73.
Power sharing-style “willing buyer/willing seller” arrangements are less coercive than eminent domain approaches and may have greater potential to promote credible commitments and positive-sum outcomes, as suggested by the governance of New York City’s watersheds (Schlager et al., 2020).
- 74.
As was mentioned above, respect for private property rights can also make it easier for the existing elite to hold onto power. Thus, there is a delicate balance between striving for a truly egalitarian society and prefiguring respect for just laws (including private property rights) during the transition. Properly striking and maintaining that balance is one of the key challenges of a successful social revolution.
- 75.
This plausible suggestion broaches the topic of a possible role for a central bank and/or monetary policy in a democratic transitionary state and raises some interesting questions, such as whether an (independent) central bank is compatible with an egalitarian society. On the one hand, central banks can arguably play a beneficial role in promoting economic development. For example, international relations scholar Henry Nau (2021, p. 380) notes that “South Africa is one [of the few in Sub-Saharan Africa] that has an independent central bank, and its economic performance ranks among the best.” On the other hand, market libertarians seem to believe that floating currency markets are preferred to a monetarist “managed float” overseen by a central bank. Like other institutional questions, a more in-depth exploration of this topic is beyond the scope of this chapter.
- 76.
For instance, a recent poll found that a large percentage of Israeli high school students did not favor equal rights for Israeli-Arabs. Kashti, O. (2010, March 11). Poll: Half of Israeli High Schoolers Oppose Equal Rights for Arabs. Haaretz. https://www.haaretz.com/1.5040299
- 77.
British Broadcasting Corporation. (2020, October 14). NZ election: The people left behind in Ardern’s “kind” New Zealand. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54444643
- 78.
Indicative of such international constraints, in the context of neoliberal globalization, governments’ desire to attract private investment often leads them to offer tax cuts (undermining the welfare state) and deregulation (Piketty, 2020, pp. 356, 486). Other responses to the competitive pressures of neoliberal globalization have included varying degrees of privatization and a transition from rigid to light neo-corporatist systems of interest intermediation (weakening the bargaining strength of labor unions in the process) (Magone, 2019).
- 79.
On this point, a lyric from the punk rock band Bad Religion’s song “All There Is” comes to mind. In it, guitarist and song writer Brett Gurewitz refers to “The walking wounded in a pageant of contenders, who balance on a rail of pain for just a pail of rain.” The BR Page. (n.d.). All There Is. Retrieved January 13, 2023, from https://www.thebrpage.net/discography/song.asp?songName=All+There+Is
- 80.
According to Domhoff (2006, p. 113), “An ideology is the complex set of rationales and rationalizations through which a group, class, or nation interprets the world and justifies its actions.” That definition corresponds with my understanding of the term.
- 81.
Street (2014, p. 135) notes that “Beyond merely a set of corporate-friendly ‘free market’ policies […] neoliberalism is an ideology.” According to Street, neoliberalism is “many sided (at once economic, political, ideological, cultural, and highly personal)” (p. 190).
- 82.
Similarly, Price (2013, p. 125) argues that overcoming capitalism “requires an understanding of how capitalism works [as well as] a vision of an alternate society.” By contrast, Streeck (2017, p. 13) asserts that “For the decline of capitalism to continue […] no revolutionary alternative is required, and certainly no masterplan of a better society displacing capitalism.”
- 83.
Guerrero-López, E., & Weaver, A. (2017, April 10). Prospects for Social Democracy in the US: Insights from a Syndicalist in Sweden. Truth Out. https://truthout.org/articles/prospects-for-social-democracy-in-the-us-insights-from-a-syndicalist-in-sweden/
- 84.
In most European countries, there is already a “consensus that lack of money should never preclude access to health care and the continuing commitment to redistributive rules that sustain affordable universal coverage” (Brown, 2015, p. 52). Similar views amenable to the provision of social welfare would need to become widespread in the USA as well.
- 85.
This idea of applying volunteerism to the public economic sphere is fitting for the USA in that, while having comparatively low tax rates, the USA has experienced comparatively high levels of volunteerism and philanthropy (Alesina & Glaeser, 2004). As Paul Goodman observed, “Americans have always been quick to form voluntary associations” (Stoer, 1994, p. 154).
- 86.
It bears repeating that by self-government, I mean the extent to which individuals understand and voluntarily comply with just law (i.e., laws that advance or at least do not undermine equal liberty), while autonomy is understood here as the extent to which individual or composite actors are free from state-based coercion. Equal liberty is realized where self-government and autonomy coincide.
- 87.
My understanding of the term imperialism corresponds with the definition provided by Merriam-Webster Dictionary: “the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation, especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.” The following discussion includes examples of both direct and indirect USA control and thus seems to fall under the scope of this definition. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Imperialism. Retrieved January 13, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/imperialism
- 88.
Allen-Ebrahimian, B. (2017, June 20). 64 Years Later, CIA Finally Releases Details of Iranian Coup. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/06/20/64-years-later-cia-finally-releases-details-of-iranian-coup-iran-tehran-oil/
- 89.
Doyle, K., & Kornbluh, P. (Eds.). (n.d.). CIA and Assassinations: The Guatemala 1954 Documents. The National Security Archive. Retrieved June 15, 2020, from https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB4/index.html
- 90.
Farah, D. (1999, March 11). Papers Show U.S. Role in Guatemalan Abuses. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/daily/march99/guatemala11.htm
- 91.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, January 6). Bay of Pigs invasion. https://www.britannica.com/event/Bay-of-Pigs-invasion
- 92.
Maxwell, K. (2003, November 20). The Other 9/11: The United States and Chile, 1973. The New York Times. https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/20031101faessay_v82n6_maxwell.html
- 93.
Spector, R. H. (2020, April 28). Vietnam War. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War
- 94.
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Agent Orange. Retrieved June 15, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/science/Agent-Orange
- 95.
Democracy Now. (2020, September 14). Salvadoran Ex-Colonel Convicted for 1989 Murder of Jesuit Priests. https://www.democracynow.org/2020/9/14/headlines/salvadoran_ex_colonel_convicted_for_1989_murder_of_jesuit_priests
- 96.
History.com Editors. (2019, December 16). The U.S. invades Panama. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-u-s-invades-panama
- 97.
Valle, A. (2015, April 13). Dancing with Monsters: The U.S. Response to the 2009 Honduran Coup. Harvard Political Review. https://harvardpolitics.com/united-states/us-honduran-coup/
- 98.
Democracy Now. (2022, July 13). John Bolton says he “helped plan coups” in foreign countries. https://www.democracynow.org/2022/7/13/headlines/john_bolton_says_he_helped_plan_coups_in_foreign_countries
- 99.
Greenwald, G. (2020, June 8). The New York Times Admits Key Falsehoods That Drove Last Year’s Coup in Bolivia. The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2020/06/08/the-nyt-admits-key-falsehoods-that-drove-last-years-coup-in-bolivia-falsehoods-peddled-by-the-u-s-its-media-and-the-nyt/
- 100.
British Broadcasting Corporation. (2020, May 7). Venezuela TV shows US citizens confessing over failed coup. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-52568475
- 101.
Democracy Now. (2021, July 22). Four Colombian Mercenaries Tied to Moïse Assassination were Trained at Fort Benning in U.S. https://www.democracynow.org/2021/7/22/headlines/four_colombian_mercenaries_tied_to_moise_assassination_were_trained_at_fort_benning_in_us
- 102.
Hiltermann, J. R. (2003, January 17). Halabja: America didn’t seem to mind poison gas. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/17/opinion/IHT-halabja-america-didnt-seem-to-mind-poison-gas.html
- 103.
Arbuthnot, F. (2002, September 8). How Did Iraq Get Its Weapons? We Sold Them. Common Dreams. https://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0908-08.htm
- 104.
Higgins, E. (2020, January 10). We’re Staying, US Tells Iraq After Being Asked to Leave. Common Dreams. https://www.commondreams.org/news/2020/01/10/were-staying-us-tells-iraq-after-being-asked-leave
- 105.
Macleod, A. (2020, January 29). US Military Announces Three New Bases in Iraq After Iraqis Demand Full Withdrawal. Mint Press News. https://www.mintpressnews.com/us-announces-three-new-bases-iraq-iraqis-demand-full-withdrawal/264466/. Since then, in August 2020, the USA handed over control of Camp Taji to Iraqi security forces for the first time since the US invasion, although a strong US military presence remained in the country as of August 2020. Democracy Now. (2020, August 24). U.S. Troops Withdraw from Camp Taji in Iraq. https://www.democracynow.org/2020/8/24/headlines/us_troops_withdraw_from_camp_taji_in_iraq
- 106.
Democracy Now. (2019, November 19). Noura Erakat: U.S. Recognition of Israeli Settlements Is “Entrenchment of an Apartheid Regime”. https://www.democracynow.org/2019/11/19/noura_erakat_israeli_settlements_trump_announcement
- 107.
Puckett, L. (2019, July 26). US blocks UN vote to condemn Israeli demolition of Palestinian homes. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-israel-palestine-un-vote-trump-homes-a9020906.html
- 108.
Lazare, S. (2014, July 28). In “Ugly” Resolution, US Politicians Back Israel’s Assault on Gaza. Common Dreams. https://www.commondreams.org/news/2014/07/28/ugly-resolution-us-politicians-back-israels-assault-gaza
- 109.
Masciotra, D. (2019, August 2). Tulsi: A Living Reminder of Iraq’s Liars and Apologists. The American Conservative. https://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/tulsi-a-living-reminder-of-iraqs-liars-and-apologists/
- 110.
In May 2022, George W. Bush made a gaffe referring to the invasion of Iraq as a war crime (he meant to refer to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine). While this in and of itself is not incriminating evidence, it highlights the US double standard when it comes to uses of force in the international arena. For a video of the gaffe, see: Palmer, E. (2022, May 19). George Bush’s Iraq-Ukraine Gaffe Sparks “War Criminal” Debate. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/george-bush-iraq-ukraine-invasion-war-criminal-1708040
- 111.
Many, though not all such statues were brought down in the context of the Black Lives Matter protests in June 2020. Magnarelli, T. (2020, June 26). Protestors continue demand to remove Columbus statue in Syracuse, Walsh not ready to remove it. WRVO. https://www.wrvo.org/post/protesters-continue-demand-remove-columbus-statue-syracuse-walsh-not-ready-remove-it
- 112.
While the US government spokespersons often describe the US foreign policy as being driven by liberal moralism (presumably, to maintain legitimacy), in practice, the US foreign policy conforms more to the realist perspective. As Mearsheimer (2014, p. 47) explains, “despite the U.S. commitment to spreading democracy across the globe, it helped overthrow democratically elected governments and embraced a number of authoritarian regimes during the Cold War, when American policymakers felt that these actions would help contain the Soviet Union.” As another example of realism reflected in the US foreign policy, a justification often provided for the US military support to Saudi Arabia in its fight against the Houthi rebels in Yemen is that those rebels are essentially a proxy force fighting on behalf of Iran in the region. In contrast to that realist containment view, which has created a famine and led to war crimes in Yemen, a more just approach would be to work strictly through the United Nations to address concerns about Iranian expansionism, even if this is less effective at containing Iran. As the saying goes, fiat justitia, ruat caelum – “let justice be done, though the heavens should fall.” (In most cases, the heavens probably wouldn’t fall anyway).
- 113.
For example, as the USA withdrew its troops from Afghanistan in the Summer of 2021, the Taliban seamlessly began to take control over more of the country’s territory. Schifrin, N., & Sagalyn, D. (2021, June 21). Taliban gains Afghan territory, may seek “complete return to power” amid US withdrawal. Public Broadcasting Service. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/taliban-gains-afghan-territory-may-seek-complete-return-to-power-amid-us-withdrawal
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Williams, B. (2023). Revolutionary Objectives. In: Anarchism and Social Revolution . Contributions to Political Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39462-1_7
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