Abstract
This chapter aims to answer how the management of the mass inflow of refugees into Hungary in 2015 has transformed solidarity, particularly regarding the system of border controls and fencing introduced between 2015 and 2021. In contrast, spontaneous solidarity by NGOs and volunteers to help refugees appeared to counteract state-level reluctance, but this counter-movement faded as the official admission of a few third-country-national migrants became more blatant. The 2015 refugee crisis is illuminating, as the ambivalence of solidarity towards Ukrainian refugees arrived since 2022 has not disappeared with the institutionalisation of temporary protection in Europe. Most refugees still spend little time in Hungary, as most conditions for getting by here are lacking. Hungary has become a source of secondary migratory movement once again.
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Notes
- 1.
Although Hungary does not grant temporary protection to foreign students studying in Ukraine, only transit, it provides more than the minimum for health care for beneficiaries of temporary protection.
- 2.
See the Preambulum, Article D) and G), Article XXIII (3)–(4) in the Constitution/Fundamental Law (published on 11th April 2011).
- 3.
With the Seventh Amendment to the Fundamental Law, in 2018, the augmented Article XIV came into force, which prohibits the resettlement (relocation) of foreign populations, and makes asylum almost inaccessible to foreigners if they do not come directly from the country of persecution.
- 4.
Government Decree no. 445, 28th November 2013, Government Decree no. 407, 8th July 2021 allows for 13 non-EEA nationals to be employed without visa and labour authorisation in defined economic sectors/professions facing labour force shortages.
- 5.
Act II of 2007 on the entry and residence of third-country nationals, as amended by Act CCXX of 2012, Act CVIII of 2014 and Act XL of 2018: this program allowed the purchase of a certain amount of EUR bonds to obtain a permanent residence permit and thus free movement in the EU for third-country national buyers and their family members, which was repaid by the state after 5 years, with interest; it was suspended by parliament due to severe critics (https://helpers.hu/services/immigration/investment-program/).
- 6.
Parliamentary Resolution no. 36, 19th December 2016, Governmental Resolution no. 1513, 22nd September 2016, no. 1532, 25th October 2018 on the support of persecuted Christians; online media article (Panyi, 2015).
- 7.
According to the information provided by the government, from the beginning of the Russian invasion until the end of 2022, more than 1.2 million Ukrainian citizens fled to Hungary, of which 33,228 were granted temporary protection status (while the refugees with Hungarian citizenship are not entitled to temporary protection), as the vast majority of refugees are mainly destined for Germany, the Czech Republic and Poland. Still, Hungary has received €300 million in financial support from the European Union to assist the refugee situation. Source: Migration Research Institute, 5th January 2023.
- 8.
Government Decree no. 41, and its length has been renewed ten times (until the manuscript is completed).
- 9.
Act CXLII of 2015 provided also these entitlements.
- 10.
Regulation (EU) no. 604/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26th June 2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person.
- 11.
Human trafficking in Hungary brings in HUF 5-8 billion a year for the big players. They are rarely caught, the border crossers found in their cars are escorted back to the other side of the fence, and the drivers face 2–5 years in prison.
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Tóth, J., Bernát, A. (2023). Solidarity Driven by Utilitarianism: How Hungarian Migration Policy Transformed and Exploited Virtues of Solidarity. In: Fauri, F., Mantovani , D. (eds) Past and Present Migration Challenges. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39431-7_11
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