Skip to main content

Surgical Optimization

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Complex Head and Neck Microvascular Surgery
  • 187 Accesses

Abstract

Reconstruction of head and neck defects is challenging for numerous reasons, including patient-related and disease-related factors. As the consequences of poor surgical outcomes are often devastating to patients, ranging from increased morbidity from additional surgery to increased mortality due to delay of adjuvant therapy in oncologic cases, thorough surgical planning is of utmost importance. Nonetheless, with patients who have systemic comorbidities and/or prior surgeries or radiation therapy, unexpected intraoperative findings are almost a rule, not an exception. This chapter focuses on reviewing generalized concepts of surgical optimization, specific sets of circumstances commonly present in head and neck patients, and preoperative considerations for flap selection, evaluation, design, and utilization. It focuses on describing practical steps, recognizing patterns, as well as pearls and pitfalls of patients who present with multiple challenges.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Tang NSJ, Ahmadi I, Ramakrishnan A. Virtual surgical planning in fibula free flap head and neck reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2019;72(9):1465–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rodby KA, Turin S, Jacobs RJ, Cruz JF, Hassid VJ, Kolokythas A, Antony AK. Advances in oncologic head and neck reconstruction: systematic review and future considerations of virtual surgical planning and computer aided design/computer aided modeling. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2014;67(9):1171–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Cho M-J, Kwon JG, Pak CJ, Suh HP, Hong JP. The role of duplex ultrasound in microsurgical reconstruction: Review and Technical Considerations. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2020;36(7):514–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kiely J, Kumar M, Wade RG. The accuracy of different modalities of perforator mapping for unilateral DIEP flap breast reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2021;74(5):945–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Li K, Zhang Z, Nicoli F, D'Ambrosia C, Xi W, Lazzeri D, Feng S, Weijie S, Li H, Ciudad P, Tremp M, Zhang YX. Application of Indocyanine green in flap surgery: a systematic review. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2018;34(2):77–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Hummelink S, Hameeteman M, Hoogeveen Y, et al. Preliminary results using a newly developed projection method to visualize vascular anatomy prior to DIEP flap breast reconstruction. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2015;68:390–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Wei F-C, Al Deek NF, Cheng M-H, Lin C-H. The triangle of unfavorable outcomes after microsurgical head and neck reconstruction: planning, design, and execution. Clin Plast Surg. 2016;43(4):615–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Patel RS, McCluskey SA, Goldstein DP, Minkovich L, Irish JC, Brown DH, Gullane PJ, Lipa JE, Gilbert RW. Clinicopathologic and therapeutic risk factors for perioperative complications and prolonged hospital stay in free flap reconstruction of the head and neck. Head Neck. 2010;32(10):1345–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Frohwitter G, Rau A, Kesting MR, Fichter A. Microvascular reconstruction in the vessel depleted neck - A systematic review. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2018;46(9):1652–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Lee MK, Blackwell KE, Kim B, Nabili V. Feasibility of microvascular head and neck reconstruction in the setting of calcified arteriosclerosis of the vascular pedicle. JAMA Facial Plast Surg. 2013;15(2):135–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Castling B, Bhatia S, Ahsan F. Monckeberg’s arteriosclerosis: vascular calcification complicating microvascular surgery. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;44(1):34–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Lahtinen S, Koivunen P, Ala-Kokko T, Kaarela O, Ohtonen P, Laurila P, Liisanantti JH. Complications and outcome after free flap surgery for cancer of the head and neck. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2018;56(8):684–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Chang S, Choi V, Elliott M, Clark JR. Relationship between postoperative complications and survival after free flap reconstruction for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2014;36(1):55–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Lee M, Chin RY, Eslick GD, Sritharan N, Paramaesvaran S. Outcomes of microvascular free flap reconstruction for mandibular osteoradionecrosis: a systematic review. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2015;43(10):2026–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Jacobson AS, Eloy JA, Park E, Roman B, Genden EM. Vessel-depleted neck: techniques for achieving microvascular reconstruction. Head Neck. 2008;30(2):201–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Maricevich M, Lin LO, Liu J, Chang EI, Hanasono MM. Interposition vein grafting in head and neck free flap reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2018;142(4):1025–34. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0000000000004770.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Jacobson AS, Smith M, Urken ML. Internal mammary artery and vein as recipient vessels in head and neck reconstruction. JAMA. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;139(6):623–8.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Ciudad P, Agko M, Date S, Chang W-L, Manrique OJ, Huang TCT, Torto FL, Trignano E, Chen H-C. The radial forearm free flap as a "vascular bridge" for secondary microsurgical head and neck reconstruction in a vessel-depleted neck. Microsurgery. 2018;38(6):651–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Gañán L, López M, García J, Esteller E, Quer M, León X. Management of recurrent head and neck cancer: variables related to salvage surgery. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2016 Dec;273(12):4417–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Lim JY, Lim YC, Kim SH, Byeon HK, Choi EC. Factors predictive of successful outcome following salvage treatment of isolated neck recurrences. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2010;142(6):832–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Schwartz GJ, Mehta RH, Wenig BL, Shaligram C, Portugal LG. Salvage treatment for recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Head Neck. 2000;22(1):34–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Temam S, Koka V, Mamelle G, Julieron M, Carmantrant R, Marandas P, Janot F, Bourhis J, Luboinski B. Treatment of the N0 neck during salvage surgery after radiotherapy of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2005;27(8):653–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Goodwin WJ Jr. Salvage surgery for patients with recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: when do the ends justify the means? Laryngoscope. 2000;110(3 Pt 2 Suppl 93):1–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Taki S, Homma A, Oridate N, Suzuki S, Suzuki F, Sakashita T, Fukuda S. Salvage surgery for local recurrence after chemoradiotherapy or radiotherapy in hypopharyngeal cancer patients. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2010 Nov;267(11):1765–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Chung EJ, Lee SH, Baek SH, Bae WJ, Chang YJ, Rho YS. Clinical outcome and prognostic factors after salvage surgery for isolated regional squamous cell carcinoma recurrences. Head Neck. 2015;37(11):1612–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Langendijk JA, Kasperts N, Leemans CR, Doornaert P, Slotman BJ. A phase II study of primary reirradiation in squamous cell carcinoma of head and neck. Radiother Oncol. 2006;78(3):306–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Kasperts N, Slotman B, Leemans CR, Langendijk JA. A review on re-irradiation for recurrent and second primary head and neck cancer. Oral Oncol. 2005;41(3):225–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Tao Y, Faivre L, Laprie A, Boisselier P, Ferron C, Jung GM, Racadot S, Gery B, Even C, Breuskin I, Bourhis J, Janot F. Randomized trial comparing two methods of re-irradiation after salvage surgery in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: once daily split-course radiotherapy with concomitant chemotherapy or twice daily radiotherapy with cetuximab. Radiother Oncol. 2018 Sep;128(3):467–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Wolff K-D. New aspects in free flap surgery: mini-perforator flaps and extracorporeal flap perfusion. J Stomatol Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;118(4):238–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Kim KN, Hong JP, Park CR, Yoon CS. Modification of the elevation plane and defatting technique to create a thin thoracodorsal artery perforator flap. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2016;32(2):142–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Ganry L, Benmoussa N, Ouhayoun L, Honart JF. Total mandibular reconstruction followingosteoradionecrosis with a single fibula free flap and one temporomandibular joint prosthesis: a case report. Microsurgery 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Cameron M, Corner A, Diba A, Hankins M. Development of a tracheostomy scoring system to guide airway management after major head and neck surgery. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;38(8):846–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Mohamedbhai H, Ali S, Dimasi I, Kalavrezos N. TRACHY score: a simple and effective guide to management of the airway in head and neck cancer. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2018;56(8):709–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Janik S, Brkic FF, Grasl S, Königswieser M, Franz P, Erovic BM. Tracheostomy in bilateral neck dissection: comparison of three tracheostomy scoring systems. Laryngoscope. 2020;130(11):E580–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. De Souza BA, Barret J. Beware venous backflow in head and neck cancer reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;113(6):1875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Visconti G, Salgarello M, Hayashi A. The Recipient Venule in Supermicrosurgical Lymphaticovenular Anastomosis: Flow Dynamic Classification and Correlation with Surgical Outcomes. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2018;34(8):581–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Birkeland AC, Rosko AJ, Beesley L, Bellile E, Chinn SB, Shuman AG, Prince ME, Wolf GT, Bradford CR, Chad Brenner J, Spector ME. Preoperative tracheostomy is associated with poor disease-free survival in recurrent laryngeal cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017;157(3):432–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. J Mei, Z Huang, K Wu, Y Zhao, J Yang, Y Liu. Risk Factors of stomal recurrence after laryngectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2017;126(9):654–68.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Pannucci CJ, Kovach SJ, Cuker A. Microsurgery and the hypercoagulable state: a hematologist’s perspective. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2015;136(4):545e–52e.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Davison SP, Kessler CM, Al-Attar A. Microvascular free flap failure caused by unrecognized hypercoagulability. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;124(2):490–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Tessler O, Vorstenbosch J, Jones D, Lalonde S, Zadeh T. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis as an under-diagnosed cause of flap failure in heparin-naive patients: a case report and systematic review of the literature. Microsurgery. 2014;34(2):157–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Chen K-T, Mardini S, Chuang DC-C, Lin C-H, Cheng M-H, Lin Y-T, Huang W-C, Tsao C-K, Wei F-C. Timing of presentation of the first signs of vascular compromise dictates the salvage outcome of free flap transfers. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;120(1):187–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Peirong Y, Chang DW, Miller MJ, Reece G, Robb GL. Analysis of 49 cases of flap compromise in 1310 free flaps for head and neck reconstruction. Head Neck. 2009;31(1):45–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Hsu-Tang Cheng F-Y, Lin SC-N, Chang. Evidence-based analysis of vein graft interposition in head and neck free flap reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2012;129(5):853e–4e.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Di Taranto G, Chen S-H, Elia R, Sitpahul N, Chan JCY, Losco L, Cigna E, Ribuffo D, Chen H-C. Outcomes following head neck free flap reconstruction requiring interposition vein graft or vascular bridge flap. Head Neck. 2019;41(9):2914–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Ethunandan M, Cole R, Flood TR. Corlett loop for microvascular reconstruction in a neck depleted of vessels. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;45(6):493–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Cavadas PC. Arteriovenous vascular loops in free flap reconstruction of the extremities. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;121(2):514–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Kehrer A, Sachanadani NS, Batista da Silva NP, Lonic D, Heidekrueger P, Taeger CD, Klein S, Jung EM, Prantl L, Hong JP. Step-by-step guide to ultrasound-based design of alt flaps by the microsurgeon - basic and advanced applications and device settings. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2020;73(6):1081–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Ono S, Ohi H, Ogawa R. Imaging in Propeller Flap Surgery. Semin Plast Surg. 2020;34(3):145–51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Jeong HH, Hong JP, Suh HS. Thin elevation: A technique for achieving thin perforator flaps. Arch Plast Surg. 2018;45(4):304–13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Kehrer A, Sachanadani NS, Batista NP, da Silva D, Lonic PH, Taeger CD, Klein S, Jung EM, Prantl L, Hong J-P. Step-by-step guide to ultrasound-based design of alt flaps by the microsurgeon - basic and advanced applications and device settings. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2020;73(6):1081–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Song S, Jeong HH, Lee Y, Powers H, Suh YC, Christoffi P, Suh HP, Hong JP. Direction of flap rotation in propeller flaps: does it really matter? J Reconstr Microsurg. 2019;35(8):549–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Ettinger KS, Alexander AE, Arce K. Computed tomographic angiography perforator localization for virtual surgical planning of osteocutaneous fibular free flaps in head and neck reconstruction. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2018;76(10):2220–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Ono S, Hayashi H, Ohi H, Ogawa R. Imaging studies for preoperative planning of perforator flaps: an overview. Clin Plast Surg. 2017;44(1):21–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ludolph I, Horch RE, Arkudas A, Schmitz M. Enhancing safety in reconstructive microsurgery using intraoperative Indocyanine green angiography. Front Surg. 2019;2(6):39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Holm C, Mayr M, Höfter E, Dornseifer U, Ninkovic M. Assessment of the patency of microvascular anastomoses using microscope-integrated near-infrared angiography: a preliminary study. Microsurgery. 2009;29(7):509–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Shokri T, Lighthall JG. Perfusion dynamics in pedicled and free tissue reconstruction: infrared thermography and laser fluorescence video angiography. Am J Otolaryngol. 2021;42(2):102751.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Pereira N, Kufeke M, Parada L, Troncoso E, Bahamondes J, Sanchez L, Roa R. Augmented reality microsurgical planning with a smartphone (ARM-PS): A dissection route map in your pocket. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2019;72(5):759–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Hummelink S, Ulrich DJO. Response: augmented reality microsurgical planning with a smartphone (ARM-PS): A dissection route map in your pocket. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2019;72(10):1700–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Ganry L, Benmoussa N, Leymarie N, Temam S. Real time assessment of fibula free flap osteotomies and perforators mapping using light – the periperative projection mapping concept. Plast Reconstr Surg 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Wesselius TS, Meulstee JW, Luijten G, Xi T, Maal TJJ, Ulrich DJ. Holographic augmented reality for DIEP flap harvest. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2021;147(1):25e–9e.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Cha YH, Nam W, Cha I-H, Kim HJ. Revisiting radial forearm free flap for successful venous drainage. Maxillofac. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2017;39(1):14.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Silva AK, Humphries LS, Maldonado AA, Gottlieb LJ. Chimeric vs composite flaps for mandible reconstruction. Head Neck. 2019 Jun;41(6):1597–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Goh TLH, Park SW, Cho JY, Choi JW, Hong JP. The search for the ideal thin skin flap: superficial circumflex iliac artery perforator flap--a review of 210 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2015;135(2):592–601.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Al Deek NF, Tsao CK, Wei FC. The Surgeon's fist with the thumb up to guide the design and inset of the osteoseptocutaneous fibula flap in mandibular reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2017;140(6):1259–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Ganry L, Quimby A. "Rock, Paper, Scissors", an age-old game guiding young microsurgeons to design fibula, scapula and DCIA osseous free flaps. Plast Reconstr Surg 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Urken ML, Weinberg H, Vickery C, Buchbinder D, Lawson W, Biller HF. Oromandibular reconstruction using microvascular composite free flaps. Report of 71 cases and a new classification scheme for bony, soft-tissue, and neurologic defects. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1991;117(7):733–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Nobis C-P, Kesting MR, Wolff K-D, Frohwitter G, Rau A, Weitz J. Development of a template tool for facilitating fibula osteotomy in reconstruction of mandibular defects by digital analysis of the human mandible. Clin Oral Investig. 2020;24(9):3077–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Pirgousis P, Brown D, Fernandes R. Digital measurements of 120 mandibular angles to determine the ideal fibula wedge osteotomy to re-create the mandibular angle for microvascular reconstruction. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;71(12):2169–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Ganry L, Quimby A. "Rock, Paper, Scissors", an age-old game guiding young microsurgeons to design fibula, scapula and DCIA osseous free flaps. JOMS 2023.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Brown JS, Shaw RJ. Reconstruction of the maxilla and midface: introducing a new classification. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11(10):1001–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Ganry L, Ettinger KS, Rougier G, Fernandes RP. Revisiting the temporal artery posterior auricular skin flap with an anatomical basis stepwise pedicle dissection for use in targeted facial subunit reconstruction. Head Neck. 2020;42(11):3153–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ganry, L., Quimby, A. (2023). Surgical Optimization. In: Quimby, A., Parmar, S., Fernandes, R. (eds) Complex Head and Neck Microvascular Surgery . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38898-9_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38898-9_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-38897-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-38898-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics