Abstract
There are three reasons for continuing to consider the concept of resonance when thinking about education in the Anthropocene. Firstly, as we have just seen, resonance, thought of as the counterpart to acceleration, tells us something about what we need to learn in this geological epoch of the ‘Great Acceleration’ (the other name by which the Anthropocene is known). Secondly, in Rosa’s thinking, nature is an important sphere of resonance. The subject is not thought of without its ineluctable link to nature, and Rosa explicitly evokes the entry into the Anthropocene. Thirdly, resonance is understood as a relationship that develops and is learned. Thus, it is linked to an educational dynamic.
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Notes
- 1.
Rosa stresses this point regularly in his book so that there is no ambiguity. For example, having already mentioned it on page 188, he states on page 193 that: ‘resonance is not an emotional state, but a relational mode’. Drawing on the theories of mirror neurons and Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy, resonance is defined as ‘a cognitive, affective, and bodily relationship to the world in which the subject, on the one hand, is touched – and sometimes ‘shaken’ to their neural foundations – by a fragment of the world, and in which, reciprocally, he or she ‘responds’ to the world by acting concretely upon it, thus experiencing its efficacy’ (2018, p. 187).
- 2.
Sein und Teilen is a much briefer and less academic philosophical essay than Rosa’s proposed theoretical formula, which has already been particularly well received in Germany.
- 3.
Weber does not quote Rosa in Sein und Teilen, as he was writing concurrently with the publication of Resonanz (released in April 2016, when Weber was finalizing Sein und Teilen), but he does occasionally mention Rosa’s work in lectures.
- 4.
‘Wenn wir selbst Welt sind, fühlen wir uns richtig’ (Weber, 2017, p. 96).
- 5.
The writing is particularly well crafted to be accessible to a wide audience (it is evocative and poetic, and in this sense, bears some resemblance to that of Maurice Bellet).
- 6.
From time to time, Andreas Weber quotes theologians.
- 7.
‘Aber von der Begegnung mit ihr bleibt das Gefühl, ein Leben in der Fülle der Welt zu führen’ (Weber, 2017, p. 44).
- 8.
Weber, like Rosa, makes use of poetic, artistic and musical metaphors.
- 9.
Weber thinks of the self in sharing with the cosmos, and Rosa thinks primarily not of the individual but of the relationship of the individual with the world.
- 10.
‘Wir müssen Natur bewahren, weil wir sie selbst sind, und wir müssen Natur bewahren, weil sie alles ist, was wir nicht sind’.
- 11.
‘Auch die Schirmpinien und die Blaualgen im Aquarium Wasser beteiligen sich an der umfassenden Alchemie des Daseins, die uns durchherrscht, während unsere Brust auf und ab geht. Sie nehmen das, worin sie sich aufhalten, ihren Außenraum, ihre Umwelt, in sich hinein und verwandeln dieses Äußere in etwas, was sie selbst sind. Das ist ein Prozess, der auf einer ganz natürlichen und körperlichen Ebene stattfindet’.
- 12.
In this sense, his thought is particularly valuable and interesting for thinking about a political anthropology for education – hope is a necessary condition for thinking in education.
- 13.
- 14.
‘Das Meer, der Ozean mit seinen kleinsten und gigantischen Wesen, der das Klima reguliert und die Kontinente mit Wasser versorgt, ist der Inbegriff eines Seins, das sich nur im Teilen realisiert’ (Weber, 2017, p. 16).
- 15.
‘Ob es uns gefällt oder nicht: durch unseren Stoffwechsel, der verlangt, dass wir uns von anderen Lebewesen ernährend und die Atmosphäre in uns hineinziehen und in uns verwandeln, haben wir an der Totalität der Biosphäre teil’.
- 16.
‘Aber der Stoff, aus dem wir in diesem Moment bestehen, wird im nächsten wieder Luft sein, dann Körper einer Pflanze oder Schale einer Muschel, und eines Tages Kalksediment, Felsen, Sand. Stofflich ist diese Welt ein Großer Körper, von dem die Einzelnen momentane Auswüchse darstellen’.
- 17.
‘Unsere besonderen Fähigkeiten sind nur eine sehr unbedeutende Variation des Ganzen’.
- 18.
The approach of thinking of the social body from another reading of the living and of inscribing the political body in this interaction with the biosphere has some similarities with recent works, which have been cited several times herein. We find this in the work of French biologists Pablo Servigne and Gauthier Chapelle in Mutual Aid – The Other Law of the Jungle (2021), or in Le vivant comme modèle: la voie du biomimétisme (by Chapelle & Decoust, 2015). This is the same approach taken by the French anthropologist François Flahault in 2018 in L’homme, une espèce déboussolée – Anthropologie générale à l’écologie. It is this same dynamic that was worked on, philosophically and without referring to biology as a science, by Corine Pelluchon in Les nourritures (2015).
- 19.
‘Wir sind beides, Welt und Einzelner’.
- 20.
At first, the cosmic anthropology of Andreas Weber appears relatively depoliticised. Where are the injustices to be denounced and the battles to be fought? Gradually, his anthropology becomes truly political and represents an alternative proposal to capitalism, in the same vein as the proposal made by Hartmut Rosa. The political scope of Andreas Weber’s Sein und Teilen is significant. It underpins a break with individualism by showing the primacy of coexistence and giving it biological foundations.
- 21.
‘Der Haushalt der Allmende ist kein Wirtschaften wie der Neoliberalismus. Er heißt nicht, zu extrahieren, sondern einen Metabolismus zu nähren, in dem der eigene Körper mit dem umgebenden Land zusammenhängt, und durch den die eigene Seinserfahrung erst ermöglicht wird’ (Weber, 2017, p. 78).
- 22.
Weber’s reflection on the commons is opposed to the conventional thinking about the market as the basis of the organisation of contemporary human societies, which is an error still conveyed in the introductory teachings on the functioning of our societies in school: ‘This reflection [on the commons] does not consist of bartering but of an exchange of vital necessities with the environment. Emotional experience is also part of this exchange, with the feeling of being accepted, of being nourished, of having an identity. This myth that people are traders and merchants, which children learn in primary school, is false. What matters most to people is not to trade in order to overcome ‘scarcity’. The first cultural act was not: I have mussels, give me coconuts. The market, as we know it today, has not always existed. The concept was invented 300 years ago, particularly by the Anglo-Saxon economist Adam Smith, around the idea that free trade between supply and demand is the most efficient way to regulate the distribution of goods. Since then, this thinking has sunk into our ideas so deeply that we cannot question the belief that every aborigine is a trader. In school, this myth is still often part of the introduction of thinking about the social’ (Weber, 2017, pp. 79–80) (‘(« Diese Arbeit besteht nicht in Tauschgeschäften, sondern in einem Austausch des Lebensnotwendigen mit der Umgebung. Zu diesem Austausch gehört explizit auch die emotionale Erfahrung: das Gefühl, angenommen zu sein, ernährt zu sein, eine Identität zu haben. Der Mythos von Menschen als Händler und Schacherer, den Kindern heute schon in der Grundschule lernen, ist falsch. Menschen fällt es nicht als erstes einzutauschen, um “Knappheit“zu überwinden. Die früheste Kulturhandlung war nicht: Ich habe Muscheln, gib du mir Kokosnüsse. Der Markt, wie wir ihn heute kennen, existierte in historischer Zeit nicht. Sein Konzept wurde vor 300 Jahren insbesondere von angelsächsischen Nationalökonomen Adam Smith erfunden, mit der Idee, dass die freie Balance von Angebot und Nachfrage am effizientesten die Verteilung der Güter regeln können. Inzwischen ist uns dieses Denken so in Fleisch und Blut übergegangen, dass wir den Glauben, dass jede Ureinwohner Krämer sei, kaum hinterfragen. In der Schule bildet dieser Mythos häufig immer noch die Einführung in das Fach Sozialkunde’ (Weber, 2017, pp. 79–80)).
- 23.
Material resources are understood as also being invested with immaterial meanings to be taken into consideration. In this sense, it is in line with the concept of milieu as proposed by Augustin Berque.
- 24.
Weber takes up the analyses of Marx’s ecological dimension that are currently being discussed increasingly widely. Continuing in this vein, he understands Marx’s ‘communism’ (‘Kommunismus’) as a ‘communalism’ (‘Commonismus’). For this, he relies on a reading of the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 where ‘The worker can do nothing without nature, without the sensual/sensory outer world’ (Marx, 1844 Manuscripts, cited in Weber, 2017, p. 84). The Marx who wrote the 1844 Manuscripts is viewed as a humanist, considering man on the basis of his belonging to nature: ‘man is a part of nature’ (Marx, 1844 Manuscripts, p. 47, cited by Weber, 2017, p. 98), and he retains the relationship of reciprocal transformation between nature and humans, at a distance from the dualism nature/culture or nature/society.
- 25.
‘Lieben heißt, sich den Kreislauf der Gabe ganz zu überlassen. Umgekehrt heißt, nicht zu lieben, sein Gegenüber aus der Allmende auszuschließen’ (Weber, 2017, p. 97).
- 26.
- 27.
His approach is similar to the Ecuadorian approach of Buen Vivir, which is based on harmonious relations between humans and nature with a distribution of wealth within communities of solidarity. Coexistence is at the heart of Buen Vivir: between humans, but also with humans and animals, and between societies and the Pachamama, Mother Earth.
- 28.
Weber has a closeness to convivialism around this togetherness and the possible sharing of individual freedoms: ‘When a community is organised as a common, this means an increase in individual freedom through the development of communal freedom’ (Weber, 2016a, b, p. 84) (‘Wenn eine Gemeinschaft als Allmende organisiert wird, bedeutet dies eine Zunahme individueller Freiheit durch das Anwachsen gemeinschaftlicher Freiheit’).
- 29.
‘Die Verzweiflung über die Liebe, die immer schon “längst verloren” ist, ist in Wahrheit die Trauer darüber, dass wir nicht wirklich sein können, das wir die Wirklichkeit verloren haben. Wir leben im Exil, aber wir wissen es nicht, weil wir dahin nach dem suchen, was uns nicht retten kann’ (Weber, 2017, p. 18).
- 30.
‘Wir sind zur Erfahrung von Innerlichkeit in der Lage, weil unser Inneres mit anderen geteilt ist. Wir können uns nur erfassen, weil wir uns nicht gehören. Sobald wir uns nicht selbst gehören, können wir selbst sein. Allein in der Veräußerung liegt die Identität’ (Weber, 2017, p. 46)
- 31.
Humans are considered to belong to the megafauna, with an average weight of 67 kg for Homo sapiens. Barnosky directly links the extinction of the megafauna biomass with the growth of the human population (and therefore of human biomass). Today, ‘the global ecosystem has gradually reorganised itself into a new state with the megafaunal biomass concentrated around one species, humans, rather than being distributed among many species’ (Barnosky, 2008, p. 11543). The continuation of this dynamic is highly problematic for Barnosky: ‘with the continued growth of human biomass and unprecedented global warming, only extraordinary and intensified conservation efforts will prevent a new round of extinctions’. Furthermore, he believes that this collapse in animal biomass would have a significant impact on humans and domestic animals. For Barnosky, the Quaternary megafauna extinction is an example of a threshold crossing and a radical break in the ecosystem.
- 32.
The ‘background rate’ is what could be called the normal rate of species extinction, before humans drove a number of species to extinction (and after the last mass extinction event).
- 33.
While the mass extinction that occurred 65 million years ago with the end of the Cretaceous took place in less than 100 years, following an asteroid strike on Earth, it may have taken two million years for the other transitions to occur (Barnosky et al., 2012, p. 53; Barnosky et al., 2011). As mentioned in the introduction, a mass extinction is defined by palaeontologists as the disappearance of 75% of living species in a relatively short geological timeframe (within two million years). Between the 1500s and 1700s, we saw the extinction of 50 species (both animal and plant). During the nineteenth century, 125 species disappeared. Then it was 500 species during the twentieth century. Today the rate of species extinction is 3–12 times higher than a baseline rate; and some even estimate it to be 1000 times higher (Pimm et al., 2014). According to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature), 41% of amphibians, 33% of coral reefs, 34% of conifers, 25% of mammals and 13% of birds are at risk of extinction (IUCN, 2017). In the oceans, a number of animal species are disappearing and the total number of marine animals is also decreasing significantly due to overfishing, with almost half as many marine animals in 2012 compared to 1970 (Federau, 2017, p. 36). Furthermore, in the last 27 years, in Germany there has been a decline of over 75% in insect biomass (the proportions of decline are likely to be the same as in Europe as a whole) (Hallmann et al., 2017). This decline should be considered in estimates of biodiversity declines because of the importance of insects in the food chain. The current rate of biodiversity loss has rarely been paralleled in the history of the biosphere, and in any case, the situation of biodiversity loss due to the dominance of one species (Homo sapiens) has never been encountered.
- 34.
If all currently threatened species became extinct in the next 100 years and this rate remained constant, we would be looking at a mass extinction within 240–540 years (241.7 years for amphibians, 536.6 years for birds, 334.4 years for mammals) (Barnosky et al., 2011, p. 55). For Barnosky et al. (2012), ‘First, the recent loss of species is dramatic and serious but does not yet constitute a mass extinction in the palaeontological sense of the Big Five. Over the course of historical times, we have lost only a few percent of the species assessed (although we have no way of knowing how many species we have lost that have never been described). […] The second point is particularly important. Even allowing for the difficulties of comparing the fossil and modern records, and applying conservative comparative methods that favour minimising the differences between fossil and modern extinction measures, it is clear that the loss of critically endangered species is propelling the world to a state of mass extinction that has been observed only five times in the last 540 million years. Further losses of species in the ‘endangered’ and ‘at-risk’ categories could bring about the sixth mass extinction in just a few centuries. Of particular concern is that this extinction trajectory is occurring under conditions that coincide perfectly with past mass extinctions: multiple atypical high-intensity ecological stressors, including rapid and unusual climate change’.
- 35.
‘Der Atem ist darum etwas ganz und gar nicht Triviales. Sein Geheimnis besteht darin, dass jeder von uns atmend nicht bloß ein Gas hin- und her bewegt, sondern sich in die umgebende Welt verwandelt. Indem wir spüren, wie wir atmen, können wir erfahren, dass wir diese Welt sind’ (Weber, 2017, p. 27).
- 36.
Breathing represents the primordial experience of belonging to the world – more so, even, than eating: ‘In breathing, we do not feel ourselves to be merely an individual subject through the pulsations of the body, but we experience ourselves to be the world itself through its rhythm’ (Weber, 2017, p. 30) (‘Im Atmen spüren wir uns nicht nur als einzelnes Subjekt in seinem pulsierenden Körper, sondern wir erfahren uns als die Welt selbst in ihrem rhythmischen Auf und Ab’ (Weber, 2017, p. 30)).
- 37.
‘Wir können erfassen, dass wir nicht auf der Erde herumlaufen, und auch nicht nur in ihr, innerhalb ihres Körpers, sondern dass wir diese Erde sind. Wir können insbesondere sehen, dass wir nicht grundsätzlich von den anderen Lebewesen getrennt sind, denn wir ernähren uns ja von ihnen und verwandeln darum ihre Körper in unseren eigenen’ (Weber, 2017, p. 29).
- 38.
‘Wir sind beides, Welt und Einzelner’ (Weber, 2017, p. 29).
- 39.
In the above quotations, we perceive the importance of working in education on the conceptions of the human body as an interrelated ‘transforming body’. This has an impact on school curricula, especially in biology.
- 40.
The pre-industrial level of CO2 in the atmosphere sat between 270 and 275 ppm, rising to 310 ppm in 1950, 379 ppm in 2005 and now 400 ppm. Human activity has been responsible for returning 555 billion metric tons of carbon to the atmosphere since 1750 (a metric ton is equal to 1000 kg – it is called a metric ton to differentiate it from other types of tons used in some countries). This level has not previously been reached for at least 800,000 years (and perhaps many more) (Lewis & Maslin, 2015, p. 172).
- 41.
As noted above, the release of 555 billion metric tons of carbon into the atmosphere since 1750 has resulted in levels of ocean acidification not seen in 300 million years (Lewis & Maslin, 2015, p. 172). On a scale of thousands of years, this acidity will gradually be absorbed, but currently, the increase in CO2 is too rapid not to cause a change in pH. This is a process that will last about 10,000 years, while continuing to leave 25% of CO2 in the atmosphere that will gradually be absorbed by the lithosphere over the next 100,000 to 200,000 years (Federau, 2017, p. 63).
- 42.
Since the last ice age on Earth, sea levels have risen by about 120 metres. During the twentieth century, the sea level has increased globally by 3.4 millimetres per year (this increase is roughly proportional to global warming). By 2100, according to IPCC scenarios, sea-level rise is estimated to be between 0.5 and 1.4 metres above the 1990 level (Rahmstorf, 2007, p. 368). Given the significant inertia, the German oceanographer Stefan Rahmstorf (2007) estimates that, in the long term, sea levels will stabilise at +10 to +30 m per one degree increase in global temperature.
- 43.
Indeed, we can implicitly see the extent to which the proponents of transhumanism are primarily computer scientists before they are biologists or neurobiologists, as the neurobiologist Catherine Vidal shows plainly in Nos cerveaux resteront-ils humains? (2019). Our bodily existence is the result of countless symbiotic relationships with different lifeforms. It is not possible to think of ourselves as not involved in this complex fabric of the living that transhumanist theories and research over-reduce: ‘Our body is not only composed of cells of a single species, Man, Homo sapiens, but of a huge number of foreign species. We carry bacteria in our intestines, bacteria on our skin and mucous membranes, and amoebae in our mouths. The number of these creatures exceeds the number of our cells tenfold. The genes of the microorganisms that make us up are a hundred times more numerous than our own’ (Weber, 2017, p. 36) (‘Unser Körper besteht nicht nur aus Zellen einer einzigen Art, dem Menschen, Homo sapiens, sondern aus Dutzenden fremden Spezies. Wir tragen Bakterien im Darm, Bakterien auf der Haut und den Schleimhäuten, und Amöben im Mund. Die Zahl dieser Wesen übertrifft die Menge unserer Zellen um das Zehnfache. Die Gene der Mikroorganismen, die uns gemeinsam hervorbringen, sind sogar 100 Mal so zahlreich wie unsere eigenen’).
- 44.
‘Das ist das Geheimnis biologischen Lebens: Seine Form ist nicht sein Stoff, sondern eine Tätigkeit’ (Weber, 2017, p. 32).
- 45.
‘All das, was Evolutionforscher in den letzten 150 Jahren ausschließlich als Wettkampf beschreiben, ist mehr als das: ein Verhältnis von bedingungsloser Gegenseitigkeit. Das soll nicht Heißen, dass in der Biosphäre keine Konkurrenz herrsche, sondern nur die Harmonie hilfreicher Kooperation. Aber die bloße Idee des Wettkampfes löst den Sinn des Geschehens noch nicht ein’ (Weber, 2017, p. 35).
- 46.
‘Organismen sind Materie, der es um etwas geht, nämlich darum, in einer bestimmten Form und Individualität weiter zu existieren. Fühlen ist somit das Grundphänomen der Lebendigkeit. Alles, was lebt, fühlt: Jedes Wesen strebt danach, sich zu erhalten und zu entfalten’ (Weber, 2017, p. 44).
- 47.
‘Wir – wie alle Wesen – fühlen, weil der Stoff, aus dem wir unsere Individualität erschaffen, der Welt gehört’ (Weber, 2017, p. 45).
- 48.
‘Es ist das, was wir nicht sind, was uns dazu bringt, eine Identität auszubilden, der es um etwas geht. Weil wir unseren Stoff mit allem teilen, ja, weil wir eigentlich die ganze Welt sind, im jeweiligen momentanen Ausschnitt ihres Durchflusses, flammt unser Selbst im intensiven Interesse an seinem eigenen Fortbestand auf. Wir – und damit meine ich ausnahmslos alles Leben, alle Zellen – sind um uns besorgt, nicht weil feindliche Angreifer unsere festgefügte Identität zerstören könnten, sondern weil wir uns von Anbeginn nicht gehören. Identität ist das: ein Prozess fühlender Sorge um sich’ (Weber, 2017, p. 47).
- 49.
‘Es ist also von zentraler Wichtigkeit, dass ein Kind wahrgenommen wird, dass ihm zugestanden wird, selbst ein Stück Welt mit seinem spezifischen Kolorit zu sein, damit das Kind später die Sorge für dieses Stück Welt in die eigenen Hände nehmen kann’ (Weber, 2017, p. 62).
- 50.
‘Um teilen zu können, muss ich sein wollen. Wenn ich sein kann, will ich teilen’ (Weber, 2017, p. 101).
- 51.
It should be noted, though, that the above sentence is to be related to his conception of being as sharing.
- 52.
Weber proposes a definition of the poetic that he regularly evokes: ‘The poetic dimension is the dimension of our organic existence that we deny. It is the world of our emotions, of our social ties and of everything we experience as significant. The poetic is thus inseparable from everyday social communication, from exchanges and interactions, from laughter and dismay or even from our own flesh’ (‘Die poetische Dimension ist die Dimension unserer organischen Existenz, die wir verleugnen. Es ist die Welt unserer Gefühle, unserer sozialen Bindungen und von allem, was wir als bedeutsam und sinnvoll erleben. Das Poetische ist deshalb untrennbar mit der alltäglichen sozialen Kommunikation, mit Austausch und Interaktionen verbunden, mit Lachen und Betroffenheit, mit unserem Fleischְ’) (Weber, 2016a, b, p. 65).
- 53.
Weber does not wish to establish a new utopia, but simply to generate a form of tenderness (‘Zärtlichkeit’) with what is real – what lives.
- 54.
- 55.
The concept of Enlivenment is, as such, a critique of transhumanist theories and ideologies, against which Andreas Weber sometimes takes a stance (such as, for example, on page 27, 2016). Thus, it is a matter of learning to understand the human being differently than algorithms do, as a machine devoid of feelings. Andreas Weber reframed the principles of life by showing that they do not obey algorithms, but rather a principle of creativity. This is driven by intentional behaviours marked by freedom and autonomy. ‘Subjectivity is not an illusion that helps organisms maximise their evolutionary success, but it is the power that makes biological existence possible’ (‘Subjektivität ist keine Illusion, die Organismen in der Evolution zur Erfolgsmaximierung verhilft, sondern sie ist die Kraft, die biologische Existenz überhaupt ermöglicht’) (Weber, 2016a, b, p.62). Andreas Weber’s poetics constitute a critique of transhumanism. Among the biological principles he states, the last one appears to be a stone laid against the development of transhumanist madness: ‘Death is real’ (‘Der Tod ist wirklich’) (Weber, 2016a, b, p. 65).
- 56.
Indeed, the concepts of Enlivenment and resonance are particularly close. Andreas Weber uses the term ‘Verbindung’ very frequently; the word can be translated as relationship, link or connection. The concept of Enlivenment gives an additional biological basis to the concept of resonance (in addition to, for example, mirror neurons).
- 57.
- 58.
Let us remember here how diverse they were, which Weber seems to overlook somewhat in order to support his argument.
- 59.
The Anthropocene represents the end of Enlightenment dualism: ‘nature does not lie outside of us. It is within us – and we are within it’ (‘Nature liegt nicht außerhalb von uns. Sie liegt in uns – und wir sind in ihr’) (Weber, 2016a, b, p. 37). Weber sometimes uses Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s expression ‘flesh of the world’.
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Wallenhorst, N. (2023). A Critical Education: We Are Not Separate from the Earth – We are the Earth. In: A Critical Theory for the Anthropocene. Anthropocene – Humanities and Social Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37738-9_13
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