Consensualism in Roman Law

Abry, Kane

doi:10.1007/978-3-031-37641-2_2

Kane Abry¹⁷

Part of the book series: Studies in the History of Law and Justice ((SHLJ,volume 27))

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Abstract

This chapter explores the development of conventional obligations in Roman law and the premises of the emergence of consensual ideas in Roman practice. It explores the drivers that coaxed the Romans into transitioning from a formal system of individual transactions governed by specific actions to a consensual system pandering more to phenomenal will; that is, the ability for individuals to make laws for themselves by the sheer force of their will even in the absence of statute providing for the conventional or contractual legal situation thus created between them.

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Notes

1.
Maine (1906), pp. 278–279.
2.
Durkheim (1950), p. 208.
3.
Rouland (1995) at [159] Carbonnier (2013), p. 308; Terré (1968) at [13], p. 76 and footnotes.
4.
Lassard (2019), p. 1; Rampelberg (2000), p. 56; Thomas (1976), p. 226; Watson (1984), p. 19; Fiori, R in McGinn (2012), p. 65; Kunderewicz (1995), p. 130; Thomas, PJ in Sondel et al. (2003), p. 174.
5.
Mathisen (2006), p. 1033; Mousourakis (2003), pp. 22–24.
6.
Bujuklic (1999), pp. 123–163; Schiavone (2008), pp. 83–84; Mousourakis (2003), p. 2; Lesaffer (2012), pp. 75–76; Mostert (1987), pp. 108ff; Mousourakis (2003), p. 3. See also Szmodis (2005).
7.
Köhn, J in Centre d'histoire du droit (Nice) (1987), pp. 358–359 and the footnotes.
8.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.136.
9.
Smith et al. (1890); Watson (1967), pp. 19–20; Fiori, R in Plessis (du) et al. (2016), pp. 583–584.
10.
Digest, 5.2.2, 45.1.1. Pr, 50.16.7. See. also Institutes of Justinian, 2.14.5, 2.18, 3.12. Pr, 19.2; Institutes of Gaius,1.119, 2.27, 3.93, 97.
11.
Digest, 50.16.19; Digest, 46.3.80.
12.
Labeo in Digest 50.16.19.
13.
Girard (1929), pp. 515ff, 517; Lepointe and Monier (1954), pp. 59ff.
14.
Gaudemet (2000), p. 264.
15.
The noun completive denotes a word or morpheme which adds a sense of completeness to a word or phrase. In this context, it means that form and consent complement each other and are not mutually exclusive as the rest of the sentence suggests. This point is discussed further below through the thesis.
16.
Digest, 2.14.7.
17.
Schiavone (1971), p. 166; Digest, 50.16.19.
18.
Léon and Mazeaud (1956), pp. 6–28.
19.
Campbell (1892), p. 117; Mousourakis (2003), pp. 34–35; Fiori, in Plessis (du) et al. (2016), pp. 585ff; Cardilli, R in Cardilli et al. (2006), pp. 19ff; Cardilli (2004), pp. 42ff, 53ff, 68ff.
20.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.22.1-3; Sohm (2011), p. 404.
21.
Fuller (1941) §2, p. 800.
22.
Fuller (1941) §3, p. 800.
23.
Fuller (1941) §4, p. 801.
24.
Fuller (1941) §5, p. 803.
25.
Institutes of Gaius, I.115, 123, 134 et seq.; Forsythe (1996), p. 241.
26.
Titus Livius et al. (1962) VII.105.
27.
Crawford, MH in Hornblower et al. (2012); Prichard (1964), p. 308; Lex Poetelia; Cairns and Plessis du (2010), p. 5.
28.
Muirhead (2009), pp. 139ff.
29.
Institutes of Gaius, I.115, 123, and 134 et seq.; Hasselt (van) (1824), pp. 60ff; Gellius (1927) 20.1.45 et seq.; Titus Livius et al. (1962) VIII.28; Lex Gall. Cisalp. 21, 22. See also Institutes of Justinian, 2.14.5, 2.18; Digest, 5.2.2; Biscardi (1992), pp. 187ff; Girard (1929), pp. 465, 510; Lepointe and Monier (1954), p. 47; Abdelrahim Abdalla (1974) 37; Buckland and Stein (1966), p. 619; Wenger (1955), p. 227. See also Senn (1905).
30.
Institutes of Gaius, I.119.
31.
Huschke (2018) 1.846, [my own translation]: ‘I have loaned a thousand asses to my debtor who is bound by the bronze and scale to repay them to me within a year with interests’.
32.
Fiori, R in McGinn (2012), p. 40, note 1.
33.
Rosini (1685), p. 594.
34.
Litvinoff (1989), p. 7.
35.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.93, 179.
36.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.15.1.
37.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.92. Compare to Codex, 8.37.10; Digest 19.2.54 Pr; Digest, 45.1.38.24 contra Digest, 45.1.2.
38.
Girard (1929), p. 519.
39.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.19.7.
40.
Karlowa (1885), pp. 363–381; Guimarães Taborda (2001), pp. 165ff; Jhering (von) (1880), p. 154.
41.
Buckler (1895), p. 22; Speake (1994), pp. 392, 436; MacCormack (1969a), pp. 439–468.
42.
Institutes of Gaius, 1.119, [my own translation] ‘In accordance with the law of the Quirites which applies to me: I declare that this man belongs to me by my right as a Roman citizen and let him be purchased by me with this piece of bronze and scale’; Varro, L.163 (raudusculo libram ferito).
43.
Duodecim Tabulae, 6.1; Liv. 8,9,8; Varro (1938) 6.60 and 7.8.
44.
Mousourakis (2015), p. 30.
45.
Meulders-Klein (1993), p. 165; Magdelain, A in École Française de Rome (1990), pp. 739ff.
46.
Digest, 50.16.5 together with Digest, 50.16.115 and 181.
47.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.19.19; Digest, 2.14.1.3 contra Institutes of Justinian, 3.19.20; Digest, 45.1.38.17 and Digest, 45.1.38.20; Institutes of Justinian, 2.9.5; Plessis (du) (2005), p. 267.
48.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.93; Digest, 45.1.16 Pr.
49.
Paul (2020) 2.14.1 and Ulpian in Digest, 2.14.7.4.
50.
Piedelièvre (1959), p. 132.
51.
Digest, 49.15.7.1.
52.
Livy (2012) 1.24: ‘“Audi” inquit, “Iuppiter; audi, pater patrate populi Albani; audi tu, populus Albanus. Ut illa palam prima postrema ex illis tabulis cerave recitata sunt sine dolo malo, utique ea hic hodie rectissime intellecta sunt, illis legibus populus Romanus prior non deficiet. Si prior defexit publico consilio dolo malo, tum ille Diespiter populum Romanum sic ferito ut ego hunc porcum hic hodie feriam; tantoque magis ferito quanto magis potes pollesque”’ [emphasis added]; Lex de imperio Vespasiani in Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, VI.930: ‘Utique quaecumque ex usu rei publicae maiestate divinarum, humanarum, publicarum privatarumque rerum esse censebit, ei agere facere ius potestasque sit, ita ut Divo Augusto, Tiberio Iulio Caesari Augusto, Tiberioque Claudio Caesari Augusto Germanico fuit’ [emphasis added].
53.
Cicero (2021) II.30.
54.
Cicero (2021) 2.30; Livy (2012) 1.13; Aen (ad), S (1471) VII/710; Cicero (2021) 11.7.13; Frezza (1938), pp. 386ff; Westrup (1947), p. 14; Aboucaya (1959), p. 277.
55.
Fargues (1913), pp. 255–270; Rouland (1995) at [164], pp. 275–276; Perrot (2010), p. 283; Mauss (2007), p. 151; Humbert (1993), p. 40. See also Buckland, WW in Kaser et al. (1939), pp. 16–28; Weber (1922), p. 429.
56.
Cicero (2021) II.30, 91; Cuenot (1893), p. 326; Halm, FH in Rüpke (2007), pp. 241–242.
57.
Livy, 9.5.4.
58.
Livy, 8.9.5-14. Compare to Alleau and Bastide (2001).
59.
Meyer (2004), pp. 10ff.
60.
Kaser (1971), pp. 27, 36–41, 45. See also Bretone (1991), p. 90; Watson (1995), p. 33; Wieacker (1892), p. 316.
61.
Bechmann (von) (1876), pp. 47–48.
62.
Stintzing (1904), p. 3–5.
63.
Hägerström (1927), pp. 35–41.
64.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.87. Compare to Jhering (von) (1880), pp. 533, 537–538; Wieacker (1892), pp. 326–335.
65.
Plutarch (1936) 83 [283f-84c]).
66.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.15.
67.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.92 et seq.
68.
Institutes of Gaius, 1.119 and Institutes of Gaius, 1.119.2.14a-22.
69.
Institutes of Gaius, 2.4.
70.
Institutes of Gaius, 2.1.
71.
Watson (1975), pp. 6ff and the authorities cited. Compare to Watson (1992), pp. 21–29 and the references cited.
72.
MacCormack (1969a), pp. 452–453. See also MacCormack (1969b), pp. 153–167.
73.
Olivercrona (1938), p. 1.
74.
Kunkel (1929), pp. 479–490. See also Thormann (1943), pp. 52–54; Lübtow (von) (1936), p. 249; Macqueron (1971), pp. 39, 68ff; Forsythe and Connelly (2005), p. 215; Patault (1989), pp. 199–215; Ourliac and Malafosse (de) (1957), pp. 30–31; Jansen and Zimmermann (1952), p. 290; Sohm et al. (2011), p. 26; Lévy-Bruhl (1947), p. 123; Humbert (1993), p. 41; Forray (2007), pp. 30 et seq.
75.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.15.1.
76.
Forsythe (2005), pp. 369–370; Mommsen (1985), pp. 237ff; Matyszak (2004), p. 13; Oakley (1998), pp. 352–353; Seymour Conway (1897), pp. 289–299; Harmand (1993), p. 66; Décret (1977), pp. 174–175, 178; Combet Farnoux (1962), p. 56; Le Bohec (2001), p. 116; Dunbar Chaplin (2000), p. 66; Astbury Brunt (1971), p. 54; Davis (1999), p. 5.
77.
Adkins and Adkins (1998), pp. 62ff, 79ff, 105ff, 252: ‘Virtue, Victory, Discipline and Fortune’, 281, and 347. For additional manuals on life in Ancient Rome see: Casson (1998); Harvey (2016); Dillon and Garland (2005).
78.
Callataÿ (de) (2005), pp. 361–372; Scheidel and Friesen (2006), pp. 62–63; Bang (2009), pp. 194–206.
79.
Vernon Arnold (1911), pp. 3ff.
80.
Plessis (du) (2013), pp. 73ff.
81.
Lex Aebutia de formulis (150 BCE); Lex de Gallia Cisalpina (BCE 49 – 42) Caput XXII, 31; Lex Irnitana (AD 51–96) LXXIX, 50; LXXXIII,48; Lex Iulia iudiciorum privatorum (AD 17); Lex Poetelia (326 BCE); Hawk (2015), p. 143.
82.
Digest, 1.1. Compare to Chevreau, E in Dubouloz et al. (2014), pp. 305–320.
83.
Codex, 8.37.14; Institutes of Justinian, 3.19.12.
84.
Institutes of Gaius, 4.17a; (Ulpian) Digest, 45.1.1.
85.
Digest, 4.3.1.2 and 44.4.4.33; Digest, 4.2.3.1, 4.2.5-6, and 44.4.4.33.
86.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.19.7; Digest, 45.1; Codex, 8.37.10; Institutes of Gaius, 3.93, 103, 113, and 179.
87.
See also Cicero (1987–1988) 2.1; Codex, 8.37.10; Institutes of Justinian, 3.15.1; Constitutio Leo, 3.15; Cicero (1983) 26.96. Compare to Lévy and Castaldo (2002), pp. 664; Institutes of Gaius, 3.131-132, 134.
88.
Zimmermann (1996), pp. 79–93; Birks and Descheemaeker (2014), pp. 30ff, 38ff; 52ff; Cardilli (1995), pp. 135ff; Fiori, R in Plessis (du) et al. (2016), pp. 587ff; Cicero (1987–1988) 2.1; Cicero (1983) 26.96. Compare to Lévy and Castaldo (2002), p. 664.
89.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.134.
90.
Weinrib (1988), p. 956; Bechmann (von) (1876), p. 54. See also Duodecim Tabulae, 6.1: ‘cum faciet nexum mancipumque, uti lingua nuncupassit, ita esto’; Duodecim Tabulae, 3.6; Gellius (1927) 20.1.48–52; Institutes of Gaius, 4.12–29; Institutes of Gaius 4.21.
91.
For instance, Nexum (Muirhead 2009, pp. 139ff); Mancipatio (Berger 1991, p. 678); Acts per aes et libram (Prichard 1964, p. 316); Sponsio (Birks and Descheemaeker (2014), pp. 53ff: ‘[…] “dari spondes?” “Spondeo” (Do you warrant to convey? I do warrant). “Dabis?” “Dabo” (Will you convey? I will convey) […]’); Gestures (McGinn 2015, pp. 253ff).
92.
Descheemaeker (2009), pp. 51–52 contra Prévost (2015), p. 143; Esmein (1880), p. 659; Alibert et al. (1842), p. 273; Lepointe and Monier (1954), p. 231; Deroussin (2007), p. 135.
93.
See also Institutes of Justinian, 3.14; Digest, 12.1. De rebus creditis; and Codex, 4.1.
94.
See also Institutes of Gaius, 3.201.
95.
See also Codex, 4.34; Digest, 16.3; Cicero (1990) 1.10 and 13.3.
96.
Institutes of Gaius, 1.119.
97.
In economics, the word tale denotes public acceptance of money for its face value. Money is said to be debased and to circulate at tale when its value no longer depends on its content of fine gold or silver but depends instead on its face value.
98.
Buttrey (1961), pp. 40–45.
99.
Digest, 12.1.2.
100.
Digest, 12.1.1.
101.
Institutes of Gaius, 2.60; Digest 12.1 et seq., Digest, 13.7 et seq.; Institutes of Gaius, 4.47; Digest, 13.6; Institutes of Justinian, 3.14.2.
102.
Digest, 12.1.
103.
See, for instance, Digest, 41.1.35 (Ulp 7 disp); ‘Si procurator meus vel tutor pupilli rem suam quasi meam vel pupilli alii tradiderit, non recessit ab eis dominium et nulla est alienatio, quia nemo errans rem suam amittit’ [emphasis added]. Compare to Digest, 41.1.36; Digest, 18.1.41.1: ‘Mensam argento coopertam mihi ignoranti pro solida vendidisti imprudens: nulla est emptio pecuniaque eo nomine data condicetur’ [emphasis added]. See also Digest, 18.1.57 Pr; Digest, 2.14.7.7. See also, Digest, 12.5.3; Digest, 12.6.1.1; Digest, 12.6.26.9; Digest, 24.1.39.10-11; Digest, 24.1.5.18; Digest, 4.2; Digest, 4.3.1.1; Cicero (ca. 44 BCE, London:1990) 3.24.92.
104.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.89.
105.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.30.
106.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.129.
107.
Institutes of Gaius, 2.127-30; Digest, 46.2.11.
108.
Cicero (2021) 1.36, 92; 39.102; Seneca (1935) 3.15.
109.
Cicero (48 BCE, Zelk: 1983) 26.96; Jolowicz and Nicholas (1972), pp. 414ff; Kaser (1960), pp. 230ff, 71–89, 414; Zweigert et al. (1996), pp. 53ff; Windscheid and Kipp (1887) §372; Joubert (1981) n^o293.
110.
Digest, 2.14.1.1 and 7.2, Institutes of Justinian, 4.6, especially 20 but also Digest, 4.4.24.1 and Digest, 4.5.8.
111.
Digest, 1.1.7.1: ‘[ius] praetorium est, quod praetores introduxerunt adiuvandi vel supplendi vel corrigendi iuris civilis gratia propter utilitatem publicam. Quod et honorarium dicitur ad honorem praetorum sic nominatum’.
112.
Digest, 2.14.7; Digest, 13.5.1; Saxoferrato (de) (1577): ‘Ex contractu ultro citroque obligatorio non potest effectualiter agi nisi ab eo qui totum contractum ex parte sua impleverit’.
113.
Institutes of Justinian.3.22 et seq.; Digest, 19.5.5.
114.
Compare to Digest, 2.14.1.3.
115.
Digest, 2.14.2, 5, 6, and 10.
116.
Digest, 2.14.6.
117.
Digest, 2.13.1, Digest 2.14.14.
118.
(Ulpianus) Digest, 2.14.5.
119.
Digest, 2.14.16.
120.
Digest, 2.14.7.
121.
Digest, 4.8.13.2; Digest, 15.5; Codex, 4.18.
122.
Digest, 2.14.7.5–7; Codex, 2.3.24; Digest, 2.14.5, (Tit. XIX De Pactis, XXXIX).
123.
Digest, 2.14.7.5.
124.
Digest, 12.2.2 (iusiurandum voluntarium); Digest, 15.5 - (Ulpianus) Digest, 4.8.13.2 - (Paulus) Digest, 4.8.19.1 – Digest, 13.5; Codex, 4.18; Digest, 4.8; Digest, 9.4.3.1 (pacta constituta); Novella, 8 and Codex, 5.11.6 (pacta legitima).
125.
Institutes of Gaius, 3.88-91; Digest, 44.7.1 Pr.
126.
Digest, 44.7.1.
127.
Digest, 3.5 et seq.; Digest, 2.6 et seq.; Digest, 17.1.39 et seq.; Digest, 4. 4.3 Pr).
128.
Digest, 50.17.206.
129.
Digest, 44.7.5 Pr, 3.
130.
Institutes of Justinian, 3.27.
131.
Digest, 19.5.3-4.
132.
Digest, 19.5.5.
133.
Gaius, 3.136.
134.
Institutes of Gaius, 1. Compare to Institutes of Justinian.1.2.

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Statutory Provisions

Constitutio Leo, 3.15.

Duodecim Tabulae, 3.6.

Duodecim Tabulae, 6.1.

Lex Aebutia de formulis (150 BCE).

Lex de Gallia Cisalpina (BCE 49 – 42) Caput XXII, 31.

Lex de imperio Vespasiani in Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, VI.930.

Lex Gall. Cisalp. 21, 22.

Lex Irnitana (AD 51–96) LXXIX, 50, and LXXXIII,48;

Lex Iulia iudiciorum privatorum (AD 17).

Lex Poetelia (326 BCE).

Lex Poetelia.

Novella, 8.

Codex Justiniani:

2.3.24.
4.1.
4.18.
4.34.
5.11.6 (pacta legitima).
8.37.10.
8.37.10.
8.37.10.
8.37.14.

Digesta Justiniani:

1.1.
1.1.7.1.
2.13.1.
2.14.14.
2.14.1.1 and 7.2.
2.14.1.3.
2.14.16.
2.14.2, 5, 6, and 10.
2.14.5, (Tit. XIX De Pactis, XXXIX).
2.14.5. (Ulpianus)
2.14.6.
2.14.7.
2.14.7.4
2.14.7.5–7.
2.14.7.5.
2.14.7.7.
2.6 et seq..
3.5 et seq..
4.4.3 Pr.
4.2.
4.2.3.1
4.2.5-6.
4.3.1.1.
4.3.1.2.
4.4.24.1.
4.5.8.
4.8.
4.8.13.2 (Paulus).
4.8.13.2.
4.8.19.1.
5.2.2.
9.4.3.1 (pacta constituta).
12.1 et seq..
12.1.
12.1.1.
12.1.2.
12.2.2 (iusiurandum voluntarium).
12.5.3.
12.6.1.1.
12.6.26.9.
13.5.
13.5.1.
13.6.
13.7 et seq..
15.5 (Ulpianus).
15.5.
16.3.
17.1.39 et seq..
18.1.41.1.
18.1.57 Pr.
19.2.54 Pr.
19.5.3-4.
19.5.5.
19.5.5.
24.1.39.10-11.
24.1.5.18.
44.4.4.33.
44.4.4.33.
41.1.35 (Ulp 7 disp).
41.1.36.
44.7.1 Pr.
44.7.1.
44.7.5 Pr, 3.
45.1.
45.1.1. (Ulpian)
45.1.1. Pr.
45.1.16 Pr.
45.1.2.
45.1.38.17.
45.1.38.20.
45.1.38.24.
46.2.11.
46.3.80.
49.15.7.1.
50.16.5.
50.16.7.
50.16.19 (Labeo).
50.16.115 and 181.
50.17.206.

Instituta Jusiniani:

1.2.
2.14.5, 2.18.
3.12. Pr.
2.14.5.
2.18.
2.9.5.
3.14.
3.14.2.
3.15.
3.15.1
3.19.7.
3.19.12.
3.19.19.
3.19.20.
3.22 et seq..
3.22.1-3.
3.27.
4.6, especially 20.

Institutes of Gaius:

1.
1.115, 123, 134 et seq..
1.119.
- 1.119
- 2.27
- 3.93
- 3.97
1.119.2.14a-22.
2.1.
2.4.
2.60.
2.127-30.
3.30.
3.87.
3.88-91.
3.89.
3.92 et seq.
3.93, 103, 113, and 179.
3.93.
3.129.
3.131-132, 134.
3.136.
3.201.
4.12–29.
4.17a.
4.21.
4.47.

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Abry, K. (2023). Consensualism in Roman Law. In: The Construction, Sources, and Implications of Consensualism in Contract. Studies in the History of Law and Justice, vol 27. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37641-2_2

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