Abstract
Oyster habitats in the United Arab Emirates are highly diverse marine ecosystems with fascinating historical cultural and fisheries importance for pearls, but also for provisioning local people with food and materials for direct consumption and income. Their hard structure protects coastal areas and human populations and their assets, while their strong filtering activity promotes clean waters and healthy and productive marine ecosystems. Oyster habitats in the UAE occur on both the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman coasts. They form oyster beds and oyster reefs and are distributed across coastal and offshore areas. These oyster habitats support hundreds of marine species that include valuable commercial species such as hamours (groupers), emperors (Lethrinidae), and snappers (Lutjanidae). The water quality in oyster ecosystems of Sharjah, Ajman and Umm al Quwain reflects good environmental conditions, yet the presence of microplastics in the sediment and oyster tissue evidence some pollution. Phytoplankton in these areas is diverse and includes several harmful algal bloom species. The current status and extent of oyster habitats in the UAE is known only for some emirates, but there is local scientific and management interest in addressing this gap for the conservation and restoration of these valuable habitats for the nation.
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1 Socio-cultural and Economic Value of Oyster Habitats in the Emirates
Oyster habitats are natural resources that were central to the prosperity and growth of the society of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) until the 1930s. Oyster beds and reefs have supported the local economy and culture through burial rights and aesthetics of societies since around 7500 YBP (Al-Matar et al. 1993; Heard-Bey 2001; Carter 2005; Hawker et al. 2005; Charpentier et al. 2012) and later transitioned into a major export commodity along the regional and Asian trade routes as pearls became popular in Indian markets (Heard-Bey 2001).
1.1 The Pearl Industry
Oyster habitats in eastern Arabia supported the traditional pearl diving industry, which, regionally, was the most lucrative economic activity during the eighteenth to twentieth centuries (Al-Matar et al. 1993; Carter 2005; Hawker et al. 2005). The pearls harvested at local oyster beds were of the highest quality in the world and had high commercial demand (Bowen 1951). In the Arabian Gulf, the pearl oyster fishery was large and supplied about 80% of the world’s pearls at its peak (Al-Matar et al. 1993). These fisheries were run from traditional wooden vessels known locally as dhows and using breath-hold divers (Fig. 12.1) (Grandcourt 2012). Many local people (mostly men) moved from inland to coastal areas to join the pearling industry, which required a great human capital for the building and maintenance of the vast sea vessels used in pearl fishing, as well as for the large crews that traveled for months for the collection of pearls (Heard-Bey 2001). The local migration to coastal areas caused a rapid increase in the populations in some settlements. While Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah were the first ports established for the pearling industry, even Abu Dhabi and Dubai had quick population growth around the pearl trade (Heard-Bey 2001). Abu Dhabi, for example, was founded in 1761 and grew to 400 houses within two years (Carter 2005). Rapid increases in coastal populations happened alongside growing demand for the oyster beds’ pearl resources (Carpenter et al. 1997).
Pearling by breath-hold divers has a long tradition in the Arabian Gulf, and was the economic backstay of many Gulf nations in the nineteenth century. Photo credit: Pearl diver sculpture, Bahrain, by Denise Krebs, shared under Creative Commons (CC BY 2.0)
In the early 1900s, the local economy of the UAE was almost entirely dependent on oyster beds’ pearl harvest. The pearling industry contributed approximately 95% of the local economy of Abu Dhabi and other emirates (Aqil 2018), transforming the coastal industry with the tribesman making up the largest portion of the workforce for this industry (Heard-Bey 2001). This economic activity was important in the region until 1930s, when it began its decline due to the introduction of cultured pearls, to become almost fully extinguished by the 1950s, after an economic depression in the 1930s and World War II, together with the discovery of oil and gas deposits across the Gulf (Bowen 1951; Grandcourt 2012; Al-Matar et al. 1993). Furthermore, regional and global impacts such as overfishing, extreme environmental conditions, and other anthropogenic stressors, contributed to the collapse of the oyster fishery in the region (Smyth et al. 2016). Many of the current ruling families of the UAE owe their standing to the pearling industry, either directly or indirectly through taxation as the industry was a part of their journey or historical influence (Carter 2005).
1.2 Architecture
The flourishing of the pearls industry played a major influential role in the early local architecture. The first UAE architecture style was developed in the nineteenth century (Hawker et al. 2005). Both the growing movement of people from neighboring countries (e.g., Iran, Bahrain, India, Iraq) for commercial pearling activities in the UAE, and the wealth obtained from the pearl trade, influenced interesting architectural innovations. Due to this, the local lifestyle became more residential, compared with the past pastoral nomadic lifestyles of the Bedoins (Hawker et al. 2005). Merchants from other countries or local settlers began constructing more permanent buildings to support these growing village populations, mostly near coastal areas of the UAE. The residents of higher status and the wealthy classes built homes of greater height which helped with ventilation. The Iranian merchants, on the other hand, built houses with wind towers which helped overcome the harsh summer weather. During that time villagers began building their homes, which were originally made of palm trunks and leaves (Areesh), and eventually from corals, including large coral-based wind tower structures (Rashdan and Mhatre 2019) (Fig. 12.2). This era was considered the “pearl era”, which later was replaced by the “oil era”, after the introduction of cultured pearls and the discovery of oil, changing the economy and architecture dramatically and making oil the major source of income (Mahgoub 1999). Interestingly, today there is a recurrence in the use of elements from past architecture in modern construction (Awad and Boudiaf 2020).
Wind tower in Dubai. Source: Wind tower house, Al Seef, Dubai.jpg by RPSkokie, shared under Creative Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0)
1.3 Archaeological Records
The connection of indigenous people of the region to pearls, as well as their reliance on other oyster bed resources, is much older than the pearl industry. The earliest known evidence for pearling was found relatively recently in the UAE and reported in Beech et al. (2020). Archaeological surveys conducted over the last few decades on Marawah Island, in Abu Dhabi, found evidence that demonstrate that the area was inhabited by humans from around 8000 YBP, and that pearls and oysters were in use from that period (Beech et al. 2020). Similar findings are reported for archaeological settlements in other emirates. For example, burial excavations in Umm Al Quwain discovered pearls dated as old as 7500 years, which were found in the skeletal face and in the hands of human remains from the fifth and fourth millennium (Charpentier et al. 2012). Old archeological pearls have been found as well in Jebel Al Buhais (Sharjah), in settlements dated 7200–6000 YBP (Charpentier et al. 2012) (Fig. 12.3). These discoveries demonstrate a robust ancient oyster fishing tradition in the UAE.
A pearl deposited on the upper lip of an individual in the cemetery at Jebel Buhais, Sharjah, UAE. Photo credit: Adelina Kutterer
Beyond pearl harvesting, oysters had very diverse historical use. Oyster shell was a common material for making jewelry, including items like beads, necklaces, pendants, and other personal ornaments such as buttons and belt buckles (Lidour and Beech 2019; Barker and Hartnell 2000). Oyster shells have been found in archaeological middens in both coastal areas and inland sites of the UAE (Hellyer and Hull 2002), indicating that oyster habitats were historically important sources of seafood and trade items and fishing grounds for indigenous people. Oysters’ meat was part of the diet of former inhabitants (Lidour and Beech 2019; Lidour et al. 2020) and oyster shells were used to make the earliest fish-hooks in the southeast Arabia (Charpentier and Mery 1997; Beech 2003; Méry et al. 2008) (Fig. 12.4). The fishing hooks made from oyster shells are effective for attracting fish with its shiny surface and allow capture of large individuals given the strength of the material (Beech 2003). Fishing and shellfish harvesting have been important subsistence activities in the region since the Neolithic (Grandcourt 2012; Lidour et al. 2020).
Early Neolithic fish hooks from Ras Al-Hamra, Oman (6000–4000 BCE). Photo credits: Mark Beech
1.4 Non-pearl Fisheries in Oyster Habitats
Modern communities in the UAE continue fishing oysters for food and economic resources, albiet more as a traditional cultural practice rather than for economic benefit (Bento et al. 2022). A wide range of fish, e.g. bony fish, sharks and rays, as well as molluscs and crustaceans, use oyster habitats to spawn, breed, feed, and grow to maturity. For this reason, oyster beds and oyster reefs are considered major essential fish habitat (USDOC 1997).
The proximity of some oyster habitats to the coast and the high productivity that characterizes these areas makes UAE’s oyster habitats good traditional fishing grounds (Sheppard et al. 1992; Carpenter et al. 1997; Carter 2005; Al-Khayat and Al-Ansi 2008; Smyth et al. 2016; Bento et al. 2022). Fisheries around oyster beds and oyster reefs in the UAE are both recreational and commercial in their nature. These fisheries are socially and economically important because provide food to direct consumption, but also support the UAE’s food security by providing additional income for the fisher’s household (Bento et al. 2022) and for the coastal people involved in the post-harvesting activities. Oyster-bed fisheries are multi-species and multi-gear, with the most common fishing methods being handline (46%) and gargours (fish traps, 41%), given their success to catch the favorite local targets: rabbitfishes, mackerels, emperors, groupers, and snappers (Bento et al. 2022) (Fig. 12.5).
Common fishing gear used in oyster-habitat fisheries in the UAE and examples for the most targeted fish species in these ecosystems. Above: (left) a UAE fishing boat with gargoors (fish traps). Photo: Daniel Mateos-Molina, (right) most frequently used fishing methods in UAE oyster grounds. Source: Rita Bento, unpubl. data. Below: (left) hamour/grouper (Epinephelidae), (center) rabbitfish (Siganidae), (right) emperor (Lethrinidae). Photos: Ivonne Bejarano
The taste for local oysters, and mollusks in general, remains in the UAE, though it is more limited now. Wild capture of native oysters (e.g. pearl oysters, hooded oysters) for human consumption still happen in some local coastal areas (Carpenter et al. 1997; Grizzle et al. 2018), and cultured oysters are produced in modern local aquaculture facilities for their meat and pearls production. For example, a mariculture farm established in Fujairah since 2016, produces and commercializes gourmet oysters for human consumption (Clarke 2021). Another farm in Ras al Khaimah cultivates pearl oysters with the aim for the re-establishment of the pearl industry in the UAE (Van Erde 2018).
2 Global and Local Distribution
Oyster habitats (i.e., beds and reefs) are structurally complex biogenic areas formed mostly by the clustering of large numbers of dead and live oysters and the fusion of their shells. These bioengineering habitats are distributed worldwide in coastal and marine areas (Korringa 1946; Beck et al. 2011), at intertidal to subtidal depths of up to 800 m (Van Rooij et al. 2010; Beck et al. 2011; Beuck et al. 2016; Taviani et al. 2019). Oyster habitats can form under an extensive range of salinity, spanning from brackish to extremely high saline waters (Wells 1961), although their distribution can be constrained by high turbidity (Emery 1956).
Recent efforts to estimate the current global distribution and condition of oyster ecosystems are limited geographically and don’t include the eastern Arabia region (e.g., Beck et al. 2011). Sadly, these studies report vast global losses of oyster habitats in the last decades (see Sect. 12.5 of this chapter below).
The widespread distribution of oyster habitats throughout the region is reported in historical records and recent studies (Figs. 12.6 and 12.7). Oyster habitats occupy coastal and offshore areas in the Arabian Gulf, from Iran to Kuwait, the UAE and Oman (Somer 2003; Carter 2005; Al-Khayat and Al-Ansi 2008; Smyth et al. 2016) and are present in the east Gulf of Oman as well (Grizzle et al. 2018). In the UAE, oyster habitats occur on both coasts: the Arabian Gulf and the eastern Gulf of Oman (Grizzle et al. 2018). They are found on nearshore and offshore areas, on hard substrates, for example on submerged rocky cliffs (e.g. Khor Kalba), and soft bottoms (Grizzle et al. 2018; Mateos-Molina et al. 2020).
Historical pearl oyster dive sites along the southern Arabian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates. Source: ‘Chart Showing Pearl Banks Along Arabian Shore of the Persian Gulf between Ras Tanura and Dabai [Dubai]’ [22r] (1/2), British Library: India Office Records and Private Papers, IOR/R/15/6/157, f 22, in Qatar Digital Library. https://www.qdl.qa/archive/81055/vdc_100076132425.0x00002c. Accessed 9 April 2023. Used under Open Government License
Map of the location of oyster habitats areas in the Northern emirates of Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm Al Quwain. Arabian Gulf. Source: Source: Fig. 4 in Mateos-Molina et al. (2020), reproduced under Elsevier license 5515881307777
Despite the great technological advancement, the distribution of oyster beds in the UAE was much better documented in the past than it is today (Figs. 12.6 and 12.7). The current extent and condition of offshore oyster habitats in the Emirates is essentially unknown. However, the widespread abundance of oyster juveniles in nearshore shallow habitats (e.g., seagrasses and macroalgae beds) suggest that UAE offshore oyster populations are still abundant (Grizzle et al. 2018).
Historical maps show vast areas of oyster habitats extending over approximately 3000 km2 of the UAE waters of the Arabian Gulf, with the emirate of Abu Dhabi hosting the largest areas (80%) (Fig. 12.6). Some Abu Dhabi oyster habitats have been dramatically reduced due to rapid coastal and offshore development and to intense overfishing (Sheppard et al. 2012). However, recent field observations detected large oyster habitat patches in the emirate (unpublished data). Data on the current extent of these areas is not yet available and therefore it is not possible to assess spatio-temporal trends.
The extension of coastal oyster habitats up to 12 m depth in the Arabian Gulf coast was mapped in 2019 for the northern emirates of Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, and Ras Al Khaimah (Mateos-Molina et al. 2020, 2021a, b) (Fig. 12.7). A total area of 40 km2 of oyster habitats was charted, and the largest uniform patches were found in Dubai, Sharjah, and Ajman waters.
The mapping was done using multiple sources of information that included remote sensing, local ecological knowledge, underwater drop video cameras and existing information to increase mapping accuracy and overcome remote sensing constraints on detecting oyster habitat. This oyster habitat map is a critical baseline to quantitatively detect future changes in the distribution of these ecosystems and to support research, decision-making, and conservation actions (Mateos-Molina et al. 2020). It was recently used, for example, to support a study that obtained local ecological knowledge about UAE’s oyster habitat fisheries from interviews with Sharjah and Ajman fishers in 2021, and which indicated that nearshore UAE’s oyster habitats are an important fishing ground that was healthier, more productive, and more abundant in the past (Bento et al. 2022).
3 Diversity
The marine bivalve fauna of the UAE are Indo-Pacific in origin (Huber 2015; Grizzle et al. 2018) and consist of at least 80 species represented in 20 families and superfamilies (e.g. George 2005, 2012; Feulner and Hornby 2006; Grizzle et al. 2018) (Table 12.1). This number of species is low compared to both the global and regional diversities. The UAE’s bivalve biodiversity represents about 2% of the species known for the Indo-Pacific region (the area with the highest bivalve species richness worldwide: 3300 species; Huber 2015), and less than 1% of the bivalve global diversity (approximately 8500 species; Huber 2015). The overall UAE’s bivalve diversity is likely higher than 80 species, though. The majority of the collections are from the shallow nearshore areas of the Arabian Gulf coast and only some data is available from the Gulf of Oman (e.g., Grizzle et al. 2018).
Similar reduced local marine species richness compared with adjacent areas has been described for other different groups such as corals, algae, fish, and echinoderms (Kinsman 1964; Sheppard et al. 1992; Price and Izsak 2005; Burt et al. 2011). This biodiversity pattern is mostly attributed to the stress posed by the extreme environment of the area. In particular, the high and low temperatures and high salinities are major factors restricting the marine biodiversity in the UAE (Kinsman 1964; Burt 2014). In the Arabian Gulf, the biogeographic isolation and the short existence of the Gulf basin are additionally important for shaping marine biodiversity patterns (Riegl and Purkis 2012; Burt 2014).
The spatial distribution of bivalves, and molluscs in general, in the Gulf broadly follows environmental conditions. Like other groups (see Chap. 4), both species richness and community densities decrease moving from the northeast sites (Strait of Hormuz) to the southwest in the Arabian Gulf (Grizzle et al. 2018; Al-Khayat and Al-Ansi 2008). There are likely also differences between the two coasts, but available data preclude making definitive comparisons (Grizzle et al. 2018).
Marine oysters belong to the families Pteriidae (feathered oysters), Ostreidae (true oysters), Spondylidae (thorny oysters), Dimyidae (dimydarian oysters), and Placunidae (windowpane oysters). Previous studies report at least 11 species of oysters in the UAE coasts (e.g. Grizzle et al. 2018; George 2012; Feulner and Hornby 2006) (Table 12.1). Through underwater visual surveys and dive sampling, an ongoing study investigating oyster beds in the waters of Sharjah and Ajman is shedding light on their biodiversity. The study revealed that oyster beds in the region mostly consist of Gulf pearl oyster Pinctada radiata (Fig. 12.8) attaching to hard rock substrates along with a variety of scallop species and pen shells Pinna muricata (Fig. 12.9) anchored in surrounding sediment using a byssus. The larger Black-lip pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera (Fig. 12.10) is more sporadically distributed, but commonly observed in oyster beds and rocky reef environments. Finally, the sturdy hooded oyster Saccostrea cuccullata (Fig. 12.11), is not observed in sublittoral oyster habitats but is common in the upper littoral zones of rocky areas in mangroves of the UAE.
Gulf pearl oyster Pinctada radiata. Source: Fadi Yaghmour
Pen shell. Pinna muricata. Source: Fadi Yaghmour
Black-lip pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera. Source: Pinctada margaritifera by Joop Trausel and Frans Slieker, licensed under Creative Commons (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Hooded oyster Saccostrea cuccullata. Source: Fadi Yaghmour
Gulf Pearl Oyster
Pinctada radiata (Leach, 1814) (Fig. 12.8)
A square-like shell growing up to 65 mm, the Gulf pearl oyster has a lamellose sculpture consisting of radial rows of sharp appressed spines. It has a varied external colouration, often a combination of tan, brown and red, and a pearly interior with light brown and red edges. This fouling species is often attached by its byssus to rocks and other hard substrates on sub tidal zones, where it lives as an epifaunal suspension feeder (Bosch et al. 1995; Tlig-Zouari et al. 2009). At pearl trade’s peak, annual exports to London from Kuwait, Bahrain and territories that are now the UAE would reach approximately 2000 tons, carrying a value of £750,000. Pearl harvesting in the Arabian Gulf was large and represented approximately 80% of the world’s production of natural pearls (Al-Matar et al. 1993; Mohammed and Yassien 2003).
Pen Shell
Pinna muricata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 12.9)
The pen shell is a large bivalve reaching lengths of up to 300 mm. They have a long and triangular shape with a narrow posterior that widens greatly to a fan shape. The coloration is pale with grey-black markings. Epibionts on pens include bryozoans, polychaete worms and smaller bivalves. The external surface of their valves is lightly ribbed, with the ribs radiating from the anterior end. This species is distinguished from other Pinna species by having the adductor scar not overlapped with the ventral nacreous layer. This species often anchors into sediments or wedged between rocks using bassus. Due to its large size, a dead anchored pen shell often serves as a refuge for small invertebrates that hide inside it. Cuttlefish eggs are also commonly attached inside dead pen shells.
Black-Lip Pearl Oyster
Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 12.10)
Squarish to subcircular with straight dorsal margin, the black-lip pearl oyster grows up to 200 mm in length. It has a lamellose sculpture consisting of radial rows of wide appressed scales (Bosch et al. 1995). It has a grayish green external coloration with a vivid pearly interior with greenish gray edges and black along the margins. This oyster thrives in clear waters, e.g., in coral reefs and oyster habitats, where it attaches itself to hard substrate using byssal threads. They occur from intertidal zones to 75 m depth (Yukihira et al. 1999). Black-lip pearl oysters were once an important source of wealth in the Arabian Gulf. At the turn of the twentieth century, mother of pearl trade was at its peak with exports to London reaching around 150 tons annually, where it was used to make mother of pearl cutlery and inlay (Bosch et al. 1995).
Hooded Oyster
Saccostrea cuccullata (Born, 1778) (Fig. 12.11)
Growing up to 70 mm, the hooded oyster has variable morphologies with circular to oval shape and irregular margins. It has thick and solid valves. With the larger, lower valve attaches, while the upper valve is flat with pleated marginal lobes that aptly fits into those of the lower valve. The external coloration is purple black with white to pale radial streaks. Internally is white with a purple-back margin (Bosch et al. 1995). It is often found attached to the surface of rocks as well as the breathing roots (pneumatophores) and trunks of mangrove trees at the upper littoral zone of mangroves, both on the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Though edible, this species is not consumed in the UAE. They provide the ecosystem service of filtering and accumulating toxins such as heavy metals from surrounding waters (Azarbad et al. 2010).
4 The Biological, Ecological, and Scientific Importance of UAE’s Oyster Beds
Oyster ecosystems provide essential goods and services for humanity in a strongly connected socio-ecological relationship that involves provision of products, regulation of ecological processes, and ecosystem use and conservation.
Fisheries, for example, is one of the human dimensions of oyster habitats. Fishers, merchants, and people in general, have for centuries benefited from catches of diverse and abundant invertebrates and fish that concentrate in oyster areas and represent sources of both food and income. Oysters, themselves, are valuable fishery resources for their meat, pearls and shells, and their skeletons form the main structural framework of oyster habitats, which is refuge and feeding ground for many other marine organisms (Wells 1961; USDOC 1997; Cranfield et al. 2001; Airoldi et al. 2008; Teng et al. 2019).
Oyster habitats themselves enhance oyster recruitment, growth, and survival (Coen et al. 1999). Oysters in these habitats are found in high densities, often grouped in clusters (Korringa 1946). This spatial arrangement is beneficial for their populations in different ways: for example, for aggregation of spawning stock, chemical induction of gregarious settlement, and as predator refugia (Coen et al. 1999). Oysters reproduce in synchronized spawning events, where sperm and eggs are released into the surrounding water around the same time for fertilization to take place and larvae to form. Larvae drift with the currents and those that find a hard and clean surface to settle into can recruit and establish themselves as new members of the oyster habitat community. Thus, larval settlement determines, to a good extent, the population dynamics of oyster habitats. The characteristic gregarious settlement of marine oysters is facilitated by the ability of oyster larvae to discriminate substrate types and choose where to settle (Crisp 1967; Zimmer-Faust and Tamburri 1994; Zhao et al. 2003). Specific chemical cues produced by conspecifics (Zimmer-Faust and Tamburri 1994) and microbial films (Doroudi and Southgate 2002; Zhao et al. 2003) are major inducers for such active selection of settlement sites. Therefore, in good environmental conditions, the higher the number of mature oysters in an area the higher the number of oyster larvae produced (Korringa 1946) and the greater the oyster settlement and recruitment. This allows population replenishment for oyster habitat maintenance and growth.
In addition, oysters and some other bioengineering molluscs create the complex primary structure of oyster habitats. The vertical relief rises to 0.2 m above the bottom in oyster beds, yet in oyster reefs the relief rises higher heights up to 6 m (Beck et al. 2009; La Peyre et al. 2019) (Fig. 12.12). The natural structure of oyster habitats provides other multiple social and ecological services like coastal protection, erosion prevention, and sediment stabilization.
Examples for oyster habitats in the United Arab Emirates. Left: oyster bed; right: oyster reef. Photos: Daniel Mateos-Molina
This framework benefits coastal communities because it is a physical barrier that buffers shorelines against the energy of waves and currents that passes through it, enhancing the conditions for saltmarsh, seagrass, and mangrove to grow, which are ecosystems that provide important services such as carbon sequestration and storage (Zu Ermgassen et al. 2021). The physical service of oyster habitats also helps prevent property damage and erosion. For this reason, recently much attention is given to oyster beds as a nature based solution to mitigate climate change impacts (Hori et al. 2020). In the UAE, coastal defense is a valuable service to protect from threats such as strong storms and Shamal events (Meyer et al. 1997), becauseore than 85% of the UAE population lives in coastal areas, and numbers are projected to continue increasing (van Lavieren et al. 2011).
Oyster ecosystems also represent a widespread and very valuable resource that provide shelter, protection, and food to abundant and varied marine fauna, particularly in areas dominated by flat soft sediment bottoms (Lenihan et al. 1999; Beck et al. 2011; Samara et al. 2023). Oyster habitats are commonly associated to greater fauna densities compared to the surrounding areas (Craeymeersch and Jansen 2019). Studies in the Arabian Gulf region report an abundant biodiversity concentrated in oyster habitats that consist of mixtures of hundreds of benthic, epibiotic, sedentary and mobile species (e.g., Al-Khayat and Al-Maslamani 2001; Feulner and Hornby 2006; Al-Khayat and Al-Ansi 2008; Amini Yekta et al. 2014; Smyth et al. 2016; Grizzle et al. 2018). Important commercial and recreational fishery fauna make up good part of these communities (Ibrahim et al. 2018; Bento et al. 2022). In line with these studies, research investigating macro-biodiversity in UAE oyster reefs and beds in 2021–2022 has revealed that local oyster habitats are used by a diverse fauna that includes several valuable commercial species such pearl oysters (Pteriidae), hamours/groupers (Epinephelidae), emperors (Lethrinidae), and snappers (Lutjanidae). Other ecologically important species, like sea snakes, were also repeatedly observed in these areas (Samara et al. 2023) (Fig. 12.13).
Examples of fauna associated to oyster habitats in the United Arab Emirates. Above: (left) catfish, (right) snappers. Below: (left) Arabian Gulf Coral Reef Sea Snake, (right) cuttlefish. Photos: Ivonne Bejarano
Mollusks in oyster habitats also underpin other fundamentally important and inter-related services such as water filtration and cleaning, and sustaining production of upper consumers (George 2012). The vast filtration capacity of dense bivalve communities in oyster habitats contributes to good water quality by reducing turbidity, suspension matter, toxins, and nutrients content (Cressman et al. 2003; Nelson et al. 2004; Newell 2004). Good water quality is closely linked to healthy phytoplankton communities and habitat productivity. Phytoplankton forms the base of the food chain in the ocean (Stoecker 1998). It is the main contributor to the global oceanic primary production, i.e., fixes about 40% of global carbon annually (Falkowski et al. 2004; Thornton 2012) and is consumed by filter-feeders that are food for many other predators, e.g., oysters, shrimp larvae, fish, and humans (Epifanio 1979; Enright et al. 1986) influencing the diversity and abundance of life in an area. Therefore, the filter feeding activity in oyster habitats also contributes services such as biodiversity and fisheries (Ruesink et al. 2005; Grabowski and Peterson 2007; Laugen et al. 2015. See Sect. 12.1 above).
A phytoplankton study investigating UAE oyster beds in Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm Al Quwain since 2021 has reported 117 taxa from four major taxonomic groups: diatoms, dinoflagellates, cyanobacteria and cryptophytes (Fig. 12.14). Similar to Kuwaiti and Qatari waters (e.g., Quigg et al. 2013; Al-Yamani and Saburova 2019), diatoms and dinoflagellates were abundant, had considerably higher taxonomic diversity compared to other algal groups, and were present throughout all seasons at all sampling sites (Samara et al. 2023) (Fig. 12.14).
Phytoplankton taxonomic diversity in oyster habitats in Sharjah, Ajman, and Um Al Quwain, United Arab Emirates. 2021–2022. Left: Percentage of species per group. Right: (above) light microscope photo of dinoflagellates Prorocentrum balticum/nux, (below-left) SEM micrograph of the diatom Thallasiosira sp., (below-right) light microscope of Cryptophyta spp. Source: Nadia Solovieva, (Samara et al. 2023)
Finally, oyster habitats are also great bioindicators of environmental conditions in marine environments, given their great filter feeding activity and potential to store high concentrations of pollutants, including microplastics (Zhu et al. 2020). Monitoring approaches in oyster habitats often include analyses of heavy metals (al-Madfa et al. 1998; Shirneshan et al. 2012), organic pollutants (Vaezzadeh et al. 2017), and microplastics (Bendell et al. 2020; Hammadi et al. 2022) in water, sediments, and oysters tissue, given the strong connection between them (Nasci et al. 1999). Seawater offers a mobile phase for the metals and toxic pollutants circulation, so the transfer and uptake of such pollutants from the sediments to the surrounding organisms and ecosystems is a common phenomenon (Aslam et al. 2020). Molluscs such as the Gulf pearl oyster Pinctada radiata have been previously used as biomarkers of heavy metal contamination (Karami et al. 2014; Nourozifard et al. 2020). Likewise, the hooded oyster Saccostrea cucullata and the Gulf pearl oyster have been used to monitor genotoxic endpoints and chemical pollution in the Gulf (De Mora et al. 2004, 2010; Farhadi et al. 2011; Leitão et al. 2017). In a larger scale context, the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) proposed in 2007 the implementation of a regional “Mussel Watch Programme” in the Arabian Gulf. The “Mussel Watch” approach was originally proposed by Edward Goldberg in 1975 and has since then been implemented in many countries to assess geographic status and temporal trends of chemical contamination in the coastal ocean.
Despite recognition of their great historical, cultural, economic and biological importance, oyster habitats are among the less studied ecosystems in the UAE (EA Abu Dhabi 2008; Hammadi et al. 2022). This is a research gap that requires immediate action.
5 Threats to the UAE’s Oyster Habitats
A few centuries ago, oyster habitats were extensive in many coasts and oceans in the world (Korringa 1946; Beck et al. 2011). In contrast, these habitats are now one of the most endangered marine ecosystems (Beck et al. 2011) (Fig. 12.15). Many oyster habitats have been dramatically reduced or have even disappeared through diverse pressures that include overexploitation, habitat loss and degradation, diseases, climate change, ocean acidification, and invasive species, among others (Mallin et al. 2000; Ogburn et al. 2007; Krassoi et al. 2008; Beck et al. 2011; Zu Ermgassen et al. 2012; Al-Saadi 2013; Ruckelshaus et al. 2013; Scanes et al. 2016; Lemasson et al. 2017). Oyster habitat loss worldwide over the last century is extimated to be 85% (Beck et al. 2011).
In the Gulf, concerns of excessive oyster habitat exploitation have been raised since 1770 (Carter 2005). Overfishing caused reductions in pearls availability, which in turn led to increases in their price and further overharvesting, entering in a destructive spiral cycle that continued until pearling was not economically viable (Carter 2005). Unfortunately, there is no record of the recovery of oyster populations after pearling activities ceased in the 1930s.
The Gulf is a semi-enclosed marine basin (Sheppard et al. 2010; Coles and Riegl 2013) and one of the most rapidly developing regions at present (Fawzi et al. 2022). This, together with local natural extreme environmental conditions (Feary et al. 2010; Riegl and Purkis 2012) and the effect of global stressors like climate change (see Chap. 3), have caused further declines to oyster habitats in the region (Al-Khayat and Al-Ansi 2008; Hightower 2013; Smyth et al. 2015, 2016; Ibrahim et al. 2018). For example, extensive and highly productive oyster beds in Qatar have suffer dramatic loss due to habitat destruction and deterioration (Smyth et al. 2016). Likewise, patches of oyster habitats in Abu Dhabi have been reduced due to rapid coastal and offshore development and past intense overfishing (Sheppard et al. 2012).
In the northern emirates, fishers in Sharjah and Ajman have noticed a drastic reduction in the spatial extent of oyster habitat areas over the last two decades, together with decreases in their catches of over 50% (Bento et al. 2022). Fishers identified overfishing, coastal development, and pollution as the leading causes for these changes. In line with this, Grizzle et al. (2018) highlighted coastal development, industrial wastes, dredging, fishing, thermal bleaching, and harmful algal blooms as major causes of mollusc habitat loss in the UAE.
Recent studies investigating the environmental conditions in five oyster patches located along the coastline of Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm Al Quwain found good water quality in these habitats which did not suggest signs of pollution (Samara et al. 2020; Hammadi et al. 2022; Samara et al. 2023). Analyses of microplastics at the same oyster habitats revealed the ubiquity and previously unrecognized pollution issue that plastics pose to almost any marine ecosystem. A high diversity of microplastics was consistently found in the sediments and oysters’ meat in these areas (Hammadi et al. 2022). In both oyster and sediments, the majority of the microplastics were black and blue in color and fiber in shape. Results suggests a risk from microplastics as a physical hazard and a vector for pollutants at local oyster beds (Barboza et al. 2018; Akdogan and Guven 2019; Peixoto et al. 2019; Goswami et al. 2021; Lin et al. 2021). The health effects that microplastics have in both marine organisms and humans are uncertain, but it has been suggested that there are two routes of toxicity, direct effects through the microplastic ingestion and as a vector for other pollutants, such as heavy metals, organic pollutants, or microorganisms, sorbed to the microplastics (Lin et al. 2021, Goswami et al. 2021). As a vector, smaller microplastics tend to have higher risk, with higher surface area for binding; while microplastics smaller than 0.15 mm may be able to cross the digestive tract lining, travel through the bloodstream, and enter and bioaccumulate in secondary organs of marine organisms or humans (Barboza et al. 2018; Akdogan and Guven 2019; Peixoto et al. 2019).
The loss of oyster habitat services can trigger environmental cascades where low densities of oysters may lead to increased phytoplankton blooms (Lenihan et al. 1999; Schulte et al. 2009). The proliferation of some phytoplankton taxa may be harmful for filter-feeders and their predators. Such sporadic events, known as harmful algal blooms (HAB) can be caused by about 300 species of diatoms, dinoflagellates, or cyanobacteria (Hallegraeff et al. 2004) and their incidence is more frequent in the past few decades globally (Hallegraeff 1993; Xiao et al. 2019) and regionally (Al-Azri et al. 2012).
In the UAE, large outbreaks of harmful dinoflagellates have caused massive die-offs of molluscs in 2008 and 2009 (Richlen et al. 2010; Al-Azri et al. 2012; Zhao and Ghedira 2014), due to the proliferation of the ichtiotoxic dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides (Richlen et al. 2010) that caused the death of thousands of fish and mammals over about 1200 km of coastline of the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. The magnitude of the event was such that water desalination plants were forced to close due to clogging of intake filters (e.g. Richlen et al. 2010; Zhao and Ghedira 2014). Other catastrophic HAB events have also occurred in the Gulf of Oman coastal waters in 2010 and 2011 (Al-Azri et al. 2012). These blooms have significantly altered the composition and abundance of UAE’s mollusc communities (Grizzle et al. 2018).
In the northern Arabian Sea (off the coast of Oman and India) planktonic diatoms are increasingly being replaced with the large green dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans, which can cause hypoxic conditions in subsurface waters when blooms (Gomes et al. 2014). This change in the phytoplankton assemblage composition affects oyster communities (Johnson et al. 2009) by lower availability of oxygen and food, i.e., diatoms. A N. scintillans bloom was reported in January 2017 in the coastal waters off Dubai (Murugesan et al. 2017).
Phytoplankton assemblages in the waters of oyster habitats in Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm Al Quwain include several potential harmful algal bloom species, such as Prorocentrum micans, Cochlodinium sp., and Alexandrium sp., Pseudonitzschia sp., and Prorocentrum balticum/nux (Samara et al. 2023) (Fig. 12.16).
Light microscope photos of potentially harmful algal bloom species found in the waters of oyster habitats in Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm Al Quwain. 2021–2022. Above: (left) dinoflagellate Dinophysis caudata, (right) Cochlodinium pulchellum. Below: (left) Prorocentrum micans, (right) A chain of Pseudonitzschia sp. Photos: Nadia Solovieva
With the ongoing global climate change and increasing pressures on marine ecosystems in the Gulf region, it is likely that the incidents of HABs may occur at higher frequency in the future. This has important economic and environmental consequences, that pose additional stress to local oyster ecosystems.
6 Management and Conservation and Future of Oyster Habitats
Despite the importance of UAE oyster habitats, there is limited comprehensive and up to date information on their distribution, condition, and trends. A recent review from Mateos-Molina et al. (2021a, b) shows the large gaps in spatio-temporal information in oyster habitats across the UAE waters, as well as the low accuracy of the existing data. The limited attention to documenting the spatial extent and status of oyster habitats hinders the uptake of effective conservation measures for the protection and preservation of this valuable habitat for human wellbeing and biodiversity (EAD 2008).
Mapping the spatial distribution of coastal habitats such as oyster beds has been highlighted as a priority action to support their management and conservation, but also to enable additional studies on their condition and trends (Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 2010; UAE NBSAP 2014–2021). This information is essential to mitigate threats, make informed decisions, and allow these sensitive habitats to be effectively monitored and managed in terms of their extent and condition (Norse 2010). The major knowledge gap in the distribution of oyster habitat is for waters deeper than 7 m, given the limitation of cost-efficient mapping approaches (Mateos-Molina et al. 2020). Therefore, dedicated surveys to enhance our knowledge in the distribution of this important habitat in shallow and deeper waters is key to diversify conservation and management efforts (Mateos-Molina et al. 2021a, b).
Losses in oyster ecosystems make them less able to support the diverse abundance of life that they typically harbor, and to reductions in their filtering and cleaning services for good water quality and declines in coastal communities’ protection. All of this is linked to direct and indirect ecological, economic, and social services losses. Therefore, conservation and management of oyster habitats is an urgent need to ensure the vital ecosystem functions and services that these habitats provide. In addition, recent studies recognizing the biodiversity and crucial ecosystem services provided by the oyster beds have highlighted specific sites in the UAE where restoring this habitat serves as nature-based solutions for enhancing food security, protection, and improving water quality (Pittman et al. 2022). The UAE’s commitment to the CBD for a science-based design of ecologically representative and interconnected protected area networks (i.e., Aichi Target 11) should support the protection of this habitat. Under the definition of Areas of Particular Importance for Biodiversity by CBD, a recent study in the UAE identified oyster habitats as an important habitat with a critical role in life-stages of commercial and endangered species, and experts agree on the need of protecting 80% of the known area covered by this habitat (Ben Lamine et al. 2020). However, the existing available information on their distribution in the UAE does not overlap with the current extension of UAE Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) (Mateos-Molina et al. 2021a, b), indicating that they remain largely unprotected across the nation.
Unfortunately, it seems that, outside of laws that protect the marine environment in general, little action is currently in place to conserve the UAE’s oyster beds, particularly those characterized by high densities of Gulf pearl oysters. However, other oyster species, such as hooded oysters enjoy a great deal of protection by virtue of their proximity to the highly protected mangroves.
7 The Future of UAEs Oyster Habitats
Moving forward, greater collaboration among scientists, fishers and policy makers is critical to compile all the existing knowledge on the past and current status of this important habitat at local but also regional scale (Fawzi et al. 2022). This would increase the availability of information to support immediate management and conservation actions and allow comprehensive ecosystem-based management approaches for transboundary conservation. Some of the management actions suggested by fishers and scientists consider the integration of oyster habitats within existing MPAs by extending their borders or establishing new MPAs to preserve oyster ecosystems ecological and socio-economic services (Mateos-Molina et al. 2020, 2021a, b; Bento et al. 2022) and restoration (Pittman et al. 2022). These management actions are especially viable considering the UAE’s commitment to address the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) targets that include 30% of land-sea protection by 2030 under the Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD 2022) and to the Global Ocean Alliance initiative that aims to protect at least 30% of the global ocean with MPAs and Other Effective area-based Conservation Measures by 2030.
8 Conclusions
Oyster habitats in the Emirates are very popular for their historical importance as sources of pearls. What is not so widely documented is that oyster habitats are highly productive ecosystems that also provide other key services like fisheries of diverse marine life, protection of the coastline from waves and currents, and improvement of water quality. UAE’s oyster habitats still occur in coastal and offshore areas and distribute across both the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. The status of these habitats is known only for some emirates. In Sharjah and Ajman, oyster habitats have a good water quality, a diverse phytoplankton assemblage, and are home to a varied life that includes commercial species. Like in many other countries, oyster habitats in the UAE have been reduced and immediate management and conservation actions to protect these valuable habitats are required for us to continue receiving the numerous benefits they provide.
9 Recommended Readings
For those interested in learning more about the amazing oyster reefs of the UAE, we recommend Charpentier et al. (2012) and Carter (2005) for an excellent summary of the historic pearl trade, Bento et al. (2022) for information on the current socio-economic value of oyster habitats in the northern Emirates and Grizzle et al. (2018) for further information on other marine molluscs, in addition to oysters, in the UAE.
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Bejarano, I., Mateos-Molina, D., Knuteson, S.L., Solovieva, N., Yaghmour, F., Samara, F. (2024). Oyster Beds and Reefs of the United Arab Emirates. In: Burt, J.A. (eds) A Natural History of the Emirates. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37397-8_12
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