Skip to main content

Venous Interventions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Limb Preservation for the Vascular Specialist

Abstract

Peripheral venous disease is a common, under-diagnosed, and under-treated issue. Broadly, venous disease is due to reflux resulting from superficial or deep valvular incompetence, deep venous obstruction, or a combination therein. Both superficial and deep venous diseases have a wide range of signs/symptoms, with the most advanced presentation being venous leg ulceration and secondary lymphedema, which comes with a high morbidity and cost. Historically, the two extremes of treatment include local wound care and compression stockings on the conservative side, and surgical treatment on the invasive side. Endovenous interventions have gained popularity as they can shorten wound healing and prolong recurrent ulceration, with decreased pain and superior recovery times. The evaluation and management of peripheral venous disease are further outlined in this chapter, including the various endovenous treatment options available and their techniques.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Change history

  • 17 January 2024

    A correction has been published.

References

  1. Hardman RL, Rochon PJ. Role of interventional radiologists in the management of lower extremity venous insufficiency. Semin Interv Radiol. 2013;30:388–93. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1359733.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Rutherford RB, Padberg FT Jr, Comerota AJ, Kistner RL, Meissner MH, Moneta GL. Venous severity scoring: an adjunct to venous outcome assessment. J Vasc Surg. 2000;31(6):1307–12. https://doi.org/10.1067/mva.2000.107094.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Eberhardt RT, Raffetto JD. Chronic venous insufficiency. Circulation. 2005;111(18):2398–409.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Gethin G, Cowman S, Kolbach DN. Debridement for venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;9:CD008599.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Gohel MS, Heatley F, Liu X, Bradbury A, Bulbulia R, Cullum N, et al. A randomized trial of early endovenous ablation in venous ulceration. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(22):2105–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Adam DJ, Naik J, Hartshorne T, Bello M, London NJM. The diagnosis and management of 689 chronic leg ulcers in a single-visit assessment clinic. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2003;25(5):462–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Schroeppel DeBacker SE, Bulman JC, Weinstein JL. Wound care for venous ulceration. Semin Interven Radiol. 2021;38(2):194–201.

    Google Scholar 

  8. O’Meara S, Cullum N, Nelson EA, Dumville JC. Compression for venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;11:CD000265.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Franks PJ, Barker J, Collier M, Gethin G, Haesler E, Jawien A, et al. Management of patients with venous leg ulcers: challenges and current best practice. J Wound Care. 2016;25(Suppl 6):S1–S67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Lippman HI, Fishman LM, Farrar RH, Bernstein RK, Zybert PA. Edema control in the management of disabling chronic venous insufficiency. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;75(4):436–41.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Gibson K, Elias S, Adelman M, Hager ES, Dexter DJ, Vayuvegula S, Chopra P, Kabnick LS. A prospective safety and effectiveness study using endovenous laser ablation with a 400-μm optical fiber for the treatment of pathologic perforator veins in patients with advanced venous disease (SeCure trial). J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2020;8(5):805–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Rochon PJ, Vu CT, Ray CE, et al. ACR Appropriateness Criteria Radiologic Management of Lower-Extremity Venous Insufficiency. American College of Radiology; 2009. https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69507/Narrative/. Accessed 8 April 2022.

  13. Tessari L, Cavezzi A, Frullini A. Preliminary experience with a new sclerosing foam in the treatment of varicose veins. Dermatol Surg. 2001;27:58–60.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Hamel-Desnos C, Desnos P, Wollmann J-C, Ouvry P, Mako S, Allaert F-A. Evaluation of the efficacy of polidocanol in the form of foam compared with liquid form in sclerotherapy of the greater saphenous vein: initial results. Dermatol Surg. 2003;29(12):1170–5. discussion 1175

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hager ES, Washington C, Steinmetz A, Wu T, Singh M, Dillavou E. Factors that influence perforator vein closure rates using radiofrequency ablation, laser ablation, or foam sclerotherapy. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2016;4(1):51–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Van den Bos R, Arends L, Kockaert M, Neumann M, Nijsten T. Endovenous therapies of lower extremity varicosities: a meta-analysis. J Vasc Surg. 2009;49(1):230–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Jimenez JC, Lawrence PF, Woo K, Chun TT, Farley SM, Rigberg DA, et al. Adjunctive techniques to minimize thrombotic complications following microfoam sclerotherapy of saphenous trunks and tributaries. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2021;9(4):904–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Lessne ML, Bajwa J, Hong K. Fatal reperfusion injury after thrombolysis for phlegmasia cerulea dolens. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2012;23(5):681–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2012.02.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Perkins JMT, Magee TR, Galland RB. Phlegmasia caerulea dolens and venous gangrene. Br J Surg. 1996;83(1):19–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800830106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Kolluri R, Lugli M, Villalba L, Varcoe R, Maleti O, Gallardo F, Black S, Forgues F, Lichtenberg M, Hinahara J, Ramakrishnan S, Beckman JA. An estimate of the economic burden of venous leg ulcers associated with deep venous disease. Vasc Med. 2022;27(1):63–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358863X211028298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Kibbe MR, Ujiki M, Goodwin AL, Eskandari M, Yao J, Matsumura J. Iliac vein compression in an asymptomatic patient population. J Vasc Surg. 2004;39(5):937–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2003.12.032.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Oguzkurt L, Ozkan U, Ulusan S, Koc Z, Tercan F. Compression of the left common iliac vein in asymptomatic subjects and patients with left iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2008;19(3):366–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2007.09.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Van Vuuren TMAJ, Kurstjens RLM, Wittens CHA, van Laanen JHH, de Graaf R. Illusory angiographic signs of significant iliac vein compression in healthy volunteers. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2018;56(6):874–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejvs.2018.07.022.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Rabinovich A, Kahn SR. How I treat the postthrombotic syndrome. Blood. 2018;131(20):2215–22. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2018-01-785956.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Pascarella L, Shortell CK. Medical management of venous ulcers. Semin Vasc Surg. 2015;28(1):21–8. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semvascsurg.2015.06.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Raju S. Best management options for chronic iliac vein stenosis and occlusion. J Vasc Surg. 2013;57(4):1163–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2012.11.084.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Wolpert LM, Rahmani O, Stein B, Gallagher JJ, Drezner AD. Magnetic resonance venography in the diagnosis and management of May-Thurner syndrome. Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2002;36(1):51–7.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Birn J, Vedantham S. May–Thurner syndrome and other obstructive iliac vein lesions: Meaning, myth, and mystery. Vasc Med. 2015;20(1):74–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358863X14560429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Grøtta O, Enden T, Sandbæk G, et al. Infrainguinal inflow assessment and endovenous stent placement in iliofemoral post-thrombotic obstructions. CVIR Endovasc. 2018;1:29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42155-018-0038-9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Bajwa R, Bergin D, O’Sullivan GJ. Aiming for the bottom corner: how to score a field goal when landing venous stents in May–Thurner syndrome. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2019;30(10):1555–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2019.04.033.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Neglén P, Darcey R, Olivier J, Raju S. Bilateral stenting at the iliocaval confluence. J Vasc Surg. 2010;51(6):1457–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2010.01.056.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Marston W, Fish D, Unger J, Keagy B. Incidence of and risk factors for iliocaval venous obstruction in patients with active or healed venous leg ulcers. J Vasc Surg. 2011;53(5):1303–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Maleux G, Vertenten B, Laenen A, et al. Palliative endovascular treatment of cancer-related iliocaval obstructive disease: technical and clinical outcomes. Acta Radiol. 2016;57(4):451–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Johnson BF, Manzo RA, Bergelin RO, Strandness DE Jr. Relationship between changes in the deep venous system and the development of the postthrombotic syndrome after an acute episode of lower limb deep vein thrombosis: a one- to six-year follow-up. J Vasc Surg. 1995;21(2):307–12. discussion 313

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Vedantham S, Goldhaber SZ, Julian JA, et al. Pharmacomechanical catheter-directed thrombolysis for deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(23):2240–52.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Kahn SR. The post-thrombotic syndrome. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2016;2016(1):413–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Sarosiek S, Crowther M, Sloan JM. Indications, complications, and management of inferior vena cava filters: the experience in 952 patients at an academic hospital with a level I trauma center. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(7):513–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Group PS. Eight-year follow-up of patients with permanent vena cava filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism: the PREPIC (Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave) randomized study. Circulation. 2005;112(3):416–22.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Decousus H, Leizorovicz A, Parent F, et al. A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(7):409–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Xiao N, Karp J, Lewandowski R, et al. Inferior vena cava thrombosis risk in 1582 patients with inferior vena cava filters. Radiology. 2022;303(2):300–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Rollo JC, Farley SM, Jimenez JC, Woo K, Lawrence PF, DeRubertis BG. Contemporary outcomes of elective iliocaval and infrainguinal venous intervention for post-thrombotic chronic venous occlusive disease. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2017;5(6):789–99.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lurie F, Passman M, Meisner M, et al. The 2020 update of the CEAP classification system and reporting standards. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2020;8(3):342–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Raju S, Hollis K, Neglen P. Obstructive lesions of the inferior vena cava: clinical features and endovenous treatment. J Vasc Surg. 2006;44(4):820–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Hartung O, Otero A, Boufi M, et al. Mid-term results of endovascular treatment for symptomatic chronic nonmalignant iliocaval venous occlusive disease. J Vasc Surg. 2005;42(6):1138–44. discussion 1144

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Jayaraj A, Crim W, Knight A, Raju S. Characteristics and outcomes of stent occlusion after iliocaval stenting. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2019;7(1):56–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Zollikofer CL, Largiader I, Bruhlmann WF, Uhlschmid GK, Marty AH. Endovascular stenting of veins and grafts: preliminary clinical experience. Radiology. 1988;167(3):707–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Black S, Gwozdz A, Karunanithy N, et al. Two year outcome after chronic iliac vein occlusion recanalisation using the vici venous stent((R)). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2018;56(5):710–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Delis KT, Bjarnason H, Wennberg PW, Rooke TW, Gloviczki P. Successful iliac vein and inferior vena cava stenting ameliorates venous claudication and improves venous outflow, calf muscle pump function, and clinical status in post-thrombotic syndrome. Ann Surg. 2007;245(1):130–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Neglen P, Hollis KC, Olivier J, Raju S. Stenting of the venous outflow in chronic venous disease: long-term stent-related outcome, clinical, and hemodynamic result. J Vasc Surg. 2007;46(5):979–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Shamimi-Noori SM, Clark TWI. Venous stents: current status and future directions. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 2018;21(2):113–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Neglen P, Darcey R, Olivier J, Raju S. Bilateral stenting at the iliocaval confluence. J Vasc Surg. 2010;51(6):1457–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Thulasidasan N, Morris R, Theodoulou I, et al. Medium-term outcomes after inferior vena cava reconstruction for acute and chronic deep vein thrombosis and retroperitoneal fibrosis. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2022;10(3):607–16. e602

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Schwein A, Georg Y, Lejay A, et al. Endovascular treatment for venous diseases: where are the venous stents? Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J. 2018;14(3):208–13.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Neglen P, Tackett TP Jr, Raju S. Venous stenting across the inguinal ligament. J Vasc Surg. 2008;48(5):1255–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Neglen P, Oglesbee M, Olivier J, Raju S. Stenting of chronically obstructed inferior vena cava filters. J Vasc Surg. 2011;54(1):153–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Desai KR, Xiao N, Karp J, et al. Single-session inferior vena cava filter removal, recanalization, and endovenous reconstruction for chronic iliocaval thrombosis. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2019;7(2):176–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Chick JFB, Jo A, Meadows JM, et al. Endovascular iliocaval stent reconstruction for inferior vena cava filter-associated iliocaval thrombosis: approach, technical success, safety, and two-year outcomes in 120 patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2017;28(7):933–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Rivers-Bowerman MD, Lightfoot CB, Meagher RP, Carter MD, Berry RF. Percutaneous sharp recanalization of a membranous IVC occlusion with an occlusion balloon as a needle target. Radiol Case Rep. 2017;12(3):537–41.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. McDevitt JL, Srinivasa RN, Gemmete JJ, et al. Approach, technical success, complications, and stent patency of sharp recanalization for the treatment of chronic venous occlusive disease: experience in 123 patients. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2019;42(2):205–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Cohen EI, Beck C, Garcia J, et al. Success rate and complications of sharp recanalization for treatment of central venous occlusions. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2018;41(1):73–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Guimaraes M, Schonholz C, Hannegan C, Anderson MB, Shi J, Selby B Jr. Radiofrequency wire for the recanalization of central vein occlusions that have failed conventional endovascular techniques. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2012;23(8):1016–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Sivananthan G, MacArthur DH, Daly KP, Allen DW, Hakham S, Halin NJ. Safety and efficacy of radiofrequency wire recanalization of chronic central venous occlusions. J Vasc Access. 2015;16(4):309–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Iafrati M, Maloney S, Halin N. Radiofrequency thermal wire is a useful adjunct to treat chronic central venous occlusions. J Vasc Surg. 2012;55(2):603–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Keller EJ, Gupta SA, Bondarev S, Sato KT, Vogelzang RL, Resnick SA. Single-center retrospective review of radiofrequency wire recanalization of refractory central venous occlusions. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2018;29(11):1571–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Notten P, Ten Cate H, Ten Cate-Hoek AJ. Postinterventional antithrombotic management after venous stenting of the iliofemoral tract in acute and chronic thrombosis: a systematic review. J Thromb Haemost. 2021;19(3):753–96.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Mahnken AH, Thomson K, de Haan M, O'Sullivan GJ. CIRSE standards of practice guidelines on iliocaval stenting. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2014;37(4):889–97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Attaran RR, Ozdemir D, Lin IH, Mena-Hurtado C, Lansky A. Evaluation of anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy after iliocaval stenting: factors associated with stent occlusion. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2019;7(4):527–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Milinis K, Thapar A, Shalhoub J, Davies AH. Antithrombotic therapy following venous stenting: international Delphi consensus. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2018;55(4):537–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. O’Meara S, Cullum NA, Nelson EA. Compression for venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009(1):Cd000265.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Brem H, Kirsner RS, Falanga V. Protocol for the successful treatment of venous ulcers. Am J Surg. 2004;188(1A Suppl):1–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Abu-Own A, Scurr JH, Coleridge Smith PD. Effect of leg elevation on the skin microcirculation in chronic venous insufficiency. J Vasc Surg. 1994;20(5):705–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. O’Meara S, Cullum N, Nelson EA, Dumville JC. Compression for venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;11(11):Cd000265.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Shi C, Dumville JC, Cullum N, Connaughton E, Norman G. Compression bandages or stockings versus no compression for treating venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;7(7):Cd013397.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Mauck KF, Asi N, Elraiyah TA, Undavalli C, Nabhan M, Altayar O, et al. Comparative systematic review and meta-analysis of compression modalities for the promotion of venous ulcer healing and reducing ulcer recurrence. J Vasc Surg. 2014;60(2 Suppl):71S–90S.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Moffatt C. Variability of pressure provided by sustained compression. Int Wound J. 2008;5(2):259–65.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Moffatt C. Four-layer bandaging: from concept to practice. Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2002;1(1):13–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Partsch H. Compression therapy. Int Angiol. 2010;29(5):391.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Allenby F, Boardman L, Pflug JJ, Calnan JS. Effects of external pneumatic intermittent compression on fibrinolysis in man. Lancet. 1973;2(7843):1412–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Tarnay TJ, Rohr PR, Davidson AG, Stevenson MM, Byars EF, Hopkins GR. Pneumatic calf compression, fibrinolysis, and the prevention of deep venous thrombosis. Surgery. 1980;88(4):489–96.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Comerota AJ. Intermittent pneumatic compression: physiologic and clinical basis to improve management of venous leg ulcers. J Vasc Surg. 2011;53(4):1121–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Badger CM, Peacock JL, Mortimer PS. A randomized, controlled, parallel-group clinical trial comparing multilayer bandaging followed by hosiery versus hosiery alone in the treatment of patients with lymphedema of the limb. Cancer. 2000;88(12):2832–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ko DS, Lerner R, Klose G, Cosimi AB. Effective treatment of lymphedema of the extremities. Arch Surg. 1998;133(4):452–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Mosti G, Cavezzi A, Partsch H, Urso S, Campana F. Adjustable velcro compression devices are more effective than inelastic bandages in reducing venous edema in the initial treatment phase: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2015;50(3):368–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Andriessen A, Apelqvist J, Mosti G, Partsch H, Gonska C, Abel M. Compression therapy for venous leg ulcers: risk factors for adverse events and complications, contraindications - a review of present guidelines. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2017;31(9):1562–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. O'Donnell TF Jr, Passman MA, Marston WA, Ennis WJ, Dalsing M, Kistner RL, et al. Management of venous leg ulcers: clinical practice guidelines of the Society for Vascular Surgery ® and the American Venous Forum. J Vasc Surg. 2014;60(2 Suppl):3s–59s.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Wittens C, Davies AH, Bækgaard N, Broholm R, Cavezzi A, Chastanet S, et al. Editor’s choice - management of chronic venous disease: clinical practice guidelines of the European Society for Vascular Surgery (ESVS). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2015;49(6):678–737.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Mosti G, Iabichella ML, Partsch H. Compression therapy in mixed ulcers increases venous output and arterial perfusion. J Vasc Surg. 2012;55(1):122–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Webb E, Neeman T, Bowden FJ, Gaida J, Mumford V, Bissett B. Compression therapy to prevent recurrent cellulitis of the leg. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(7):630–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ahmed, S.S. et al. (2023). Venous Interventions. In: Madassery, S., Patel, A. (eds) Limb Preservation for the Vascular Specialist. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36480-8_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36480-8_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-36479-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-36480-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics