Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Congenital Anomalies of the Cardiac Valves

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pathology of Cardiac Valve Disease

  • 210 Accesses

Abstract

Congenital malformations are seen in all cardiac valves, both at atrioventricular and ventricular arterial connections.

At the mitral level, the most frequent forms are: the parachute, the arcade (known as the congenital mitral stenosis), the cleft of the anterior leaflet, the double orifice, and the supravalvular-valvular ring. Rare forms are mucoid dysplasia of all cardiac valves and short/absent chordae tendineae.

A peculiar malformation is the Ebstein anomaly of the tricuspid valve, which consists of a downward displacement of the septal and posterior leaflets with incompetence and auricularization of the right ventricle, with thin wall.

A right-to-left shunt across a patent foramen ovale may occur, accounting for cyanosis. An anomalous septal av connection may be associated, accounting for ventricular preexcitation.

As far as the aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves, malformations mostly consist of anomalous number of the semilunar cusps (unicusp, bicuspid, quadricuspid).

Bicuspid aortic valve may be associated with aortopathy of the ascending (both sinusal and tubular) aorta, with degenerative changes of the tunica media, at risk of progressive dilatating and dissecting aneurysm with rupture and sudden death.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

Papers

  • Anderson RH, Becker AE, Ho SY, Rigby ML, Ebels T. The morphology and diagnosis of atrioventricular septal defects. Cardiol Young. 1991;1:290–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson RH, Ho SY, Falcao S, Daliento L, Rigby ML. The diagnostic features of atrioventricular septal defect with common atrioventricular junction. Cardiol Young. 1998;8:33–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson RH. Understanding Ebstein's malformation. Cardiol Young. 2015;25:137–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angelini A, Ho SY, Anderson RH, Devine WA, Zuberbuhler JR, Becker AE. The morphology of the normal aortic valve as compared with the aortic valve having two leaflets. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1989;98:362–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Attenhofer Jost CH, Connolly HM, Dearani JA, Edwards WD, Danielson GK. Ebstein’s anomaly. Circulation. 2007;115:277–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Attenhofer Jost CH, Tan NY, Hassan A, Vargas ER, Hodge DO, Dearani JA, Connolly H, Asirvatham SJ, McLeod CJ. Sudden death in patients with Ebstein’s anomaly. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:1970–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baño-Rodrigo A, Van Praagh S, Trowitzsch E, Van Praagh R. Double-orifice mitral valve: a study of 27 postmortem cases with developmental, diagnostic and surgical considerations. Am J Cardiol. 1988;61:152–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartram U, Bartelings MM, Kramer HH, Gittenberger-de Groot AC. Congenital polyvalvular disease: a review. Pediatr Cardiol. 2001;22:93–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basso C, Boschello M, Perrone C, Mecenero A, Cera A, Bicego D, Thiene G, De Dominicis E. An echocardiographic survey of primary school children for bicuspid aortic valve. Am J Cardiol. 2004;93:661–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basso C, Frescura C, Corrado D, Muriago M, Angelini A, Daliento L, Thiene G. Congenital heart disease and sudden death in the young. Hum Pathol. 1995;26:1065–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker AE, Becker MJ, Edwards JE. Pathologic spectrum of dysplasia of the tricuspid valve. Features in common with Ebstein’s malformation. Arch Pathol. 1971;91:167–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bettex DA, Prêtre R, Chassot PG. Is our heart a well-designed pump? The heart along animal evolution. Eur Heart J. 2014;35(34):2322–32. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehu222. Epub 2014 Jun 10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bharati S, Lev M. Congenital polyvalvular disease. Circulation. 1973a;47:575–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bharati S, Lev M. The spectrum of common atrioventricular orifice (canal). Am Heart J. 1973b;86:553–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheitlin MD, Fenoglio JJ Jr, McAllister HA, Davia JE, De Castro CM. Congenital aortic stenosis secondary to dysplasia of congenital bicuspid valves without commissural fusion. Am J Cardiol. 1978;42:102–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clementi M, Notari L, Borghi A, Tenconi R. Familial congenital bicuspid aortic valve: a disorder of uncertain inheritance. Am J Med Genet. 1996;62:336–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cripe L, Andelfinger G, Martin LJ, Shooner K, Benson DW. Bicuspid aortic valve is heritable. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:138–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daliento L, Angelini A, Ho SY, Frescura C, Turrini P, Baratella MC, Thiene G, Anderson RH. Angiographic and morphologic features of the left ventricle in Ebstein's malformation. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80:1051–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daliento L, Nava A, Fasoli G, Mazzucco A, Thiene G. Dysplasia of the atrioventricular valves associated with conduction system anomalies. Br Heart J. 1984;53:243–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davachi F, Moller JH, Edwards JE. Diseases of the mitral valve in infancy. An anatomic analysis of 55 cases. Circulation. 1971;43:565–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davia JE, Fenoglio JJ, DeCastro CM, McAllister HA Jr, Cheitlin MD. Quadricuspid semilunar valves. Chest. 1977;72:186–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies RR, Kaple RK, Mandapati D, Gallo A, Botta DM Jr, Elfteriades JA, Coady MA. Natural history of ascending aortic aneurysms in the setting of an unreplaced bicuspid aortic valve. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;83:1338–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dearani JA, Mora BN, Nelson TJ, Haile DT, O’Leary PW. Ebstein’s anomaly review: what’s now, what’s next? Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2015;13:1101–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Segni E, Edwards JE. Cleft anterior leaflet of the mitral valve with intact septa. A study of 20 cases. Am J Cardiol. 1983;51:919–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Digilio MC, Capolino R, Versacci P, Marino B. Polyvalvular heart disease associated with short stature, facial anomalies, and mental retardation: an additional familial report. Am J Med Genet A. 2004;127A:101–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dolk H, Loane M, Garne E. European surveillance of congenital anomalies (EUROCAT) working group. Congenital heart defects in Europe: prevalence and perinatal mortality, 2000 to 2005. Circulation. 2011 Mar 1;123(8):841–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duran AC, Daliento L, Frescura C, Stellin G, Sans-Coma V, Milanesi O, Thiene G. Unicommissural aortic valve in neonates and its association with other congenital heart disease. Cardiol Young. 1995a;5:131–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duran AC, Frescura C, Sans-Coma V, Angelini A, Basso C, Thiene G. Bicuspid aortic valves in hearts with other congenital heart disease. J Heart Valve Dis. 1995b;4:581–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falcone MV, Roberts WC, Morrow AG, Perloff JK. Congenital aortic stenosis resulting from a unicommissural valve. Clinical and anatomic features in twenty-one adult patients. Circulation. 1971;44:278–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández B, Durán AC, Fernández-Gallego T, Fernandez MC, Arquè SM, JM, Sans-Coma V. Bicuspid aortic valves with different spatial orientations of the leaflets are distinct etiological entities. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:2312–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández B, Durán AC, Martire A, López D, Sans-Coma V. New embryological evidence for the formation of quadricuspid aortic valves in the Syrian hamster (Mesocricetus auratus). J Comp Pathol. 1999;121:89–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández B, Durán AC, Thiene G, Cardo M, Arqué JM, Sans-Coma V. Embryological evidence for the formation of a quadricuspid aortic valve in the Syrian hamster. Cardiovasc Pathol. 1994;3:287–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández B, Fernández MC, Durán AC, López D, Martire A, Sans-Coma V. Anatomy and formation of congenital bicuspid and quadricuspid pulmonary valves in Syrian hamsters. Anat Rec. 1998;250:70–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez SM, Sanders SP, Khairy P, Jenkins KJ, Gauvreau K, Lang P, Simonds H, Colan SD. Morphology of bicuspid aortic valve in children and adolescents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:1648–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Formigari R, Francalanci P, Gallo P, D'Offizi F, di Gioia C, Hokayem NJ, D'Alessandro C, Colloridi V. Pathology of atrioventricular valve dysplasia. Cardiovasc Pathol. 1993;2:137–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Formigari R, Gallo P. About congenital polyvalvular disease. Pediatr Cardiol. 2002;23:110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frescura C, Angelini A, Daliento L, Thiene G. Morphological aspects of Ebstein's anomaly in adults. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2000;48:203–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frescura C, Thiene G. Small aortic root in neonates. J Heart Valve Dis. 1996;5(Suppl.II):S272–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giusti S, Cocco P, Thiene G. The bicuspid aortic valve: a “minor” congenital cardiopathy at risk of serious complications. G Ital Cardiol. 1991;21:189–201.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hakim FA, Krishnaswamy C, Mookadam F. Mitral arcade in adults–a systematic overview. Echocardiography. 2013;30:354–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ho SY, Goltz D, McCarthy K, Cook AC, Connell MG, Smith A, Anderson RH. The atrioventricular junctions in Ebstein malformation. Heart. 2000;83:444–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hurwitz LE, Roberts WC. Quadricuspid semilunar valve. Am J Cardiol. 1973a;31:623–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurwitz LE, Roberts WC. Quadricuspid semilunar valve. Am J Cardiol. 1973b;31:623–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim SJ, Shin ES, Park MK, Choi SH, Lee SG. Congenital mitral insufficiency caused by anomalous mitral arcade in an elderly patient: use of echocardiography and multidetector computed tomography for diagnosis. Circ J. 2005;69:1560–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Canna G, Ficarra E, Tsagalau E, Nardi M, Morandini A, Chieffo A, Maisano F, Alfieri O. Progression rate of ascending aortic dilation in patients with normally functioning bicuspid and tricuspid aortic valves. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98:249–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larson EW, Edwards WD. Risk factors for aortic dissection: a necropsy study of 161 cases. Am J Cardiol. 1984;53:849–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Layman TE, Edwards JE. Anomalous mitral arcade. A type of congenital mitral insufficiency. Circulation. 1967;35:389–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leung PL, McKey R, Smith A, Anderson RH, Arnold R. Critical aortic stenosis in early infancy. Anatomic and echocardiographic substrates of successful open valvulotomy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1991;101:526–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lev M, Gibson S, Miller RA. Ebstein's disease with Wolff-Parkinson-white syndrome. Am Heart J. 1955;49:724–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lev M, Liberthson R, Joseph RH, Seten CE, Kunske R, Eckner FAO, Miller RA. The pathologic anatomy of Ebstein’s disease. Arch Path. 1970;90:3334–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKey R, Smith A, Leung MP, Arnold R, Anderson RH. Morphology of the ventriculoaortic junction in critical aortic stenosis. Implications for hemodynamic function and clinical management. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1992;104:434–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michelena HI, Della Corte A, Prakash SK, Milewicz DM, Evangelista A, Enriquez-Sarano M. Bicuspid aortic valve aortopathy in adults: incidence, etiology, and clinical significance. Int J Cardiol. 2015;201:400–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michelena HI, Khanna AD, Mahoney D, Margaryan E, Toplsky Y, Suri RM, Edwards WD, Sundt TM, Enriquez-Sarano M. Incidence of aortic complications in patients with bicuspid aortic valves. JAMA. 2011;306:1104–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moller JH, Edwards JE. Anomalies associated with the parachute mitral valve: a pathologic analysis of 52 cases. Can J Cardiol. 1986;2:278–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nistri S, Basso C, Marzari C, Mormino P, Thiene G. Frequency of bicuspid aortic valve in young male conscripts by echocardiogram. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:718–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nistri S, Basso C, Thiene G. Bicuspid aortic valve. G Ital Cardiol. 2012;13:25–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nistri S, Sorbo MD, Marin M, Palisi M, Scognamiglio R, Thiene G. Aortic root dilatation in young men with normally functioning bicuspid aortic valves. Heart. 1999;82:19–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rastelli GC, Kirklin JW, Titus JL. Anatomic observations on complete form of persistent common atrioventricular canal with special reference to atrioventricular valves. Mayo Clin Proc. 1966;41:296–308.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts WC, Ko JM. Frequency by decades of unicuspid, bicuspid, and tricuspid aortic valves in adults having isolated aortic valve replacement for aortic stenosis, with or without associated aortic regurgitation. Circulation. 2005;111:920–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts WC, Morrow AG. Congenital aortic stenosis produced by a unicommisural valve. Br Heart J. 1965;27:505–10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts WC. The congenitally bicuspid aortic valve. A study of 85 autopsy cases. Am J Cardiol. 1970;26:72–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts WC. Valvular, subvalvular and supravalvular stenosis: morphologic features. Cardiovasc Clin. 1973;5:79–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robicsek F, Thubrikar MJ, Cook JW, Fowler B. The congenital bicuspid aortic valve: how does it function? Why does it fail? Ann Thorac Surg. 2004;77:177–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenquist GC, Stark J, Taylor JF. Congenital mitral valve disease in transposition of the great arteries. Circulation. 1975;51:731–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenquist GC. Congenital mitral valve disease associated with coarctation of the aorta. A spectrum that includes parachute deformity of the mitral valve. Circulation. 1974;49:985–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi L, Thiene G. Mild Ebstein's anomaly associated with supraventricular tachycardia and sudden death: clinicomorphologic features in 3 patients. Am J Cardiol. 1984;53:332–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sans-Coma V, Cardo M, Durán AC, Franco D, Fernandez B, Arque JM. Evidence for a quantitative genetic influence on the formation of aortic valves with two leaflets in the Syrian hamster. Cardiol Young. 1993;3:132–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sans-Coma V, Fernández B, Durán AC, Thiene G, Arqué JM, Muñoz-Chápuli R, Cardo M. Fusion of valve cushions as a key factor in the formation of congenital bicuspid aortic valves in Syrian hamsters. Anat Rec. 1996;244:490–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sans-Coma V, Fernández MC, Fernández B, Durán AC, Anderson RH, Arqué JM. Genetically alike Syrian hamsters display both bifoliate and trifoliate aortic valves. J Anat. 2012;220:92–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sievers HH, Sievers HL. Aortopathy in bicuspid aortic valve disease–genes or hemodynamics? Or Scylla and Charybdis? Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2011;39:803–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stamm C, Anderson RH, Ho SY. Clinical anatomy of the normal pulmonary root compared with that in isolated pulmonary valve stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;31:1420–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stefani G, Cocco P, Sans-Coma V, Corrado D, Thiene G. Juvenile sudden death from spontaneous aortic rupture. G Ital Cardiol. 1993;23:55–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thareja SK, Frommelt MA, Lincoln J, Lough JW, Mitchell ME, Tomita-Mitchell A. A systematic review of Ebstein's anomaly with left ventricular noncompaction. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2022 Apr 13;9(4):115.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thiene G, Basso C. Pathology and pathogenesis of infective endocarditis in native heart valves. Cardiovasc Pathol. 2006;15:256–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thiene G, Frescura C, Daliento L. The pathology of the congenitally malformed mitral valve. In: Marcelletti G, Anderson RH, Becker AE, et al., editors. Pediatric cardiology, vol. 6. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1986. p. 225–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiene G, Frescura C, Di Donato R, Gallucci V. Complete atrioventricular canal associated with cono-truncal malformations: anatomical observations in 13 specimens. Europ J Cardol. 1979;9:199–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tribouilloy C, Rusinaru D, Sorel C, Thuny F, Casalta JP, Riberi A, Jeu A, Gouriet F, Collart F, Caus T, Raoult D, Habib G. Clinical characteristics and outcome of infective endocarditis in adults with bicuspid aortic valves: a multicenter observational study. Heart. 2010;96:1723–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsang MYC, Abudiab MM, Ammash NM, Tasneem Z, Naqvi TZ, Edwards WD, Nkomo VT, Pellikka PA. Quadricuspid aortic valve: characteristics associated structural cardiovascular abnormalities and clinical outcomes. Circulation. 2016;133:312–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Praagh S, Porras D, Oppido G, Geva T, Van Praagh R. Cleft mitral valve without ostium primum defect: anatomic data and surgical considerations based on 41 cases. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;75:1752–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasudev R, Shah P, Bikkina M, Shamoon F. Quadricuspid aortic valve: a rare congenital cause of aortic insufficiency. J Clin Imaging Sci. 2016;30(6):10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Books

  • Abbott ME. Atlas of congenital cardiac disease. Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press; 2006.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Barratt-Boyes BG, Neutze JM, Harris EA. Heart disease in infancy–diagnosis and surgical treatment: proceedings of the second international symposium. Great Britain: Churchill Livingstone; 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bharati S, Lev M. The pathology of congenital heart disease: a personal experience with more than 6,300 congenitally malformed hearts, vol. I. United States of America: Futura Publishing Company; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bharati S, Lev M. The pathology of congenital heart disease: a personal experience with more than 6,300 congenitally malformed hearts, vol. II. United States of America: Futura Publishing Company; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards JE, Carey LS, Neufeld HN, Lester RG. Congenital heart disease: correlation of pathologic anatomy and angiocardiography, vol. I. Paris: Saunders; 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards JE, Carey LS, Neufeld HN, Lester RG. Congenital heart disease: correlation of pathologic anatomy and angiocardiography, vol. II. Paris: Saunders; 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frescura C, Yen Ho S, Thiene G. La Collezione Anatomica di Cardiopatie Congenite dell’Università di Padova. Cleup: Padova; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatzoulis MA, Webb GD, Daubeney PE. Diagnosis and Management of Adult Congenital Heart Disease. 2nd ed. United States of America: Elsevier; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goor DA, Lillehei CW. Congenital malformations of the heart: embryology, anatomy, and operative considerations. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marino B, Thiene G. Anatomia Ecocardiografica delle Cardiopatie Congenite. Uses: Firenze; 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perloff JK. Clinical recognition of congenital heart disease: expert consult. 5th ed. United States of America: Saunders; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts WC. Congenital heart disease in adults. United States of America: F.A. Davis Company; 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiene G, Frescura C. Codificazione Diagnostica e Atlante delle Cardiopatie Congenite. Lint: Trieste; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padua Medical School, and Cardiovascular Pathology Unit, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy

    Carla Frescura & Gaetano Thiene

Authors
  1. Carla Frescura
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gaetano Thiene
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Istituto di Anatomia Patologica, University of Padua, PADOVA, Padova, Italy

    Gaetano Thiene

  2. Cardiovascular Pathology, Department of Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Sciences and Public. Health, University of Padua, Padova, Padova, Italy

    Cristina Basso

  3. Cardiovascular Pathology, Department of Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Sciences and Public. Health, University of Padua, Padova, Padova, Italy

    Stefania Rizzo

  4. Cardiac-Thoracic-Vasc. Sc. and P. Health, AOU University of Padua Medical School, Padova, Italy

    Mila Della Barbera

  5. Istituto di Anatomia Patologica, University of Padua, PADOVA, Padova, Italy

    Marialuisa Valente

  6. Cardio-Thoracic and Vascular Department Cardiac Surgery Unit, University of Pisa, Padova, Padova, Italy

    Uberto Bortolotti

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Frescura, C., Thiene, G. (2023). Congenital Anomalies of the Cardiac Valves. In: Thiene, G., Basso, C., Rizzo, S., Della Barbera, M., Valente, M., Bortolotti, U. (eds) Pathology of Cardiac Valve Disease. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35498-4_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35498-4_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-35497-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-35498-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation