Abstract
In this chapter, I will explore Lacan’s conception of psychoanalysis and its relation to spiritual direction by relating it to the concept of performative discourse. I will then give a close reading of a crucial paragraph from his seminal text Psychoanalysis and its Teaching, where he mentions the importance of spiritual direction for psychoanalytic practice. This aims to demonstrate that Lacan understood spiritual direction relating to desire as D2 instead of D1b. This will set the groundwork for exploring Lacan and his relation to spiritual direction via John of the Cross, his mentor Jean Baruzi and peer Georges Bataille (This chapter includes material previously published in the Journal for Cultural and Religious Theory, but it has been revised and expanded for this publication with permission).
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Notes
- 1.
‘C’est de se rappeler avec Freud qu’en [ce] matière, l’artiste toujours le précède et qu’il n’a donc pas à faire le psychologue là où l’artiste lui fraie la voie’ (Lacan, 2001, pp. 192–193).
- 2.
Michel De Certeau has also argued that mystical theology and psychoanalysis have many aspects in common concerning how they both challenged and subverted the prevailing discourses out of which they emerged (De Certeau, 1995, pp. 6–9). One cannot think of the work of Lacan apart from the turbulent context which contributed to forming his ideas. Lacan was a renegade who fought against the established discourse of the International Psychoanalytic Association. In much of his writings, he sees this institution and the Freudian traditions within it as the subject of his polemic. There are points within his writings where he refers to the International Psychoanalytic Association as a Church, and his position is much like a radical theologian, like John, who has challenged its teachings (SE, XI:2–3). De Certeau also makes the salient point that this radical intervention, or break, is not merely found in the content of Lacan’s teachings; instead, it is found in the very form; in its pedagogical methods (De Certeau, 1995, pp. 6–9).
- 3.
As a side note, apophasis is by definition a classical rhetorical technique, also known as paralipsis. To remind readers, in classical rhetoric, this involves denying something while at the same time affirming or alluding to it. It is a form of irony that is often used to draw attention to a sensitive or taboo topic without explicitly mentioning it. In other words, it is a way of talking about something by saying that you won’t talk about it. Moreover, and again, as we have already shown, it is also the core of mysticism stemming back from pseudo-Dionysus. As we know, the unconscious is made up of rhetoric—or rather rhetorical statements in analysis signal the unconscious—according to Lacan in the Écrits. He states, “Can one see here mere manners of speaking, when it is the figures themselves that are at work in the rhetoric of the discourse the analysand actually utters?” (E: 433). These mechanisms involve the use of familiar rhetorical devices and can be seen as linguistic subtleties, which can convey important information (see Fink, 2004, p. 72). It follows that the unconscious is ‘mystical’ not by reference to its depth but because it is a poetical grammar that apophatically erupts into our everyday speech as a form of rhetoric.
- 4.
Lacan’s interest in the mystical can also be found in his referencing Nicholas of Cusa in his seminar, The Knowledge of the Psychoanalyst: (SE XIX: 12):
It is a way of establishing it, making it an established knowledge. For example, when one wanted to be a doctor in a time that, of course, was the end of an era, it is normal to have wanted to benefit from, show, and manifest a consolidated ignorance, if I may say so. That being said, after what I have just told you about ignorance, you will not be surprised that I point out that the “learned ignorance,” as expressed by a certain cardinal at a time when this title was not a certificate of ignorance, a certain cardinal called the highest knowledge “learned ignorance.” It was Nicolas de Cues, to remind you in passing. Therefore, the correlation between ignorance and knowledge is something that we must essentially start with and see that after all, if ignorance, in a certain moment, in a certain zone, brings knowledge to its lowest level, it is not the fault of ignorance, it is even the opposite.”
Nicholas of Cusa was a fifteenth-century German philosopher, theologian, and astronomer known for his contributions to philosophy, mathematics, and science and his work in the history of Christian mysticism. The works of Pseudo-Dionysius heavily influenced him. In particular, Nicholas of Cusa was interested in Pseudo-Dionysius’ concept of the “Divine Darkness,” which emphasized that God is ultimately unknowable to humans and that pursuing knowledge about God involves a journey into darkness and mystery. This idea is reflected in Nicholas of Cusa’s own works, which often explore the limits of human knowledge and the relationship between reason and faith via the concept of ignorance. In this quote from his seminar “The Knowledge of Psychoanalysis,” Lacan explores the relationship between ignorance and knowledge. He notes that in the past, people seeking to establish themselves as authorities or experts in a particular field often displayed a certain level of ignorance to demonstrate their expertise. For example, aspiring doctors would sometimes display their ignorance of certain topics to demonstrate their knowledge of other areas. However, Lacan explains that this “learned ignorance” is not necessarily negative and sometimes can benefit acquiring knowledge. In his exploration of the relationship between ignorance and knowledge, Lacan’s concept of “learned ignorance” can be seen as a reflection of Nicholas of Cusa’s interest in the limits of human knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge into the unknown. Lacan uses this concept as a psychoanalyst in creating the analyst’s position, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging one’s own ignorance in the face of a patient’s unconscious desires. Rather than claiming all the answers, the analyst should approach the patient’s unconscious with curiosity and openness by suspending one’s knowing.
- 5.
The term analysand refers to Lacan’s name for the patient. He used this term to make sure that the patient is not understood as being a mere passive recipient of treatment. In other words, the term highlights the importance of approaching a patient as a subject and not merely an object (see Fink, 1997).
- 6.
‘On trouve là le joint par où la psychanalyse s’infléchit vers un behaviourisme, toujours plus dominant dans ses « tendances actuelles.” Ce mouvement est supporté, on le voit, par des conditions sociologiques qui débordent la connaissance analytique comme telle. Ce qu’on ne peut manquer de dire ici, c’est que Freud, en prévoyant nommément cette collusion avec le behaviourisme, l’a dénoncée à l’avance comme la plus contraire à sa voie Quelle que doive être pour l’analyse l’issue de la singulière régie spirituelle où elle paraît ainsi s’engager, la responsabilité de ses tenants reste entière à l’endroit des sujets dont ils prennent la charge.’ (E : 490).
- 7.
The history of monastic rules dates back to when ascetics—the desert fathers and mothers—began to retreat to the wilderness to live a life of contemplation. As monasticism grew, communities of Religious began to develop their own rules and regulations to guide their lives of prayer and service. One of the most influential monastic rules is the Rule of Saint Benedict, written in the sixth century, which became the basis for Western monasticism.
- 8.
For an excellent piece of work focusing Lacan’s complicated relationship to monastic thought, I recommend the work of Padusniak C (2022) ‘Jacques Lacan’s Benedict Option.’ In this piece Padusniak explores how key medieval texts and figures, including Peter Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux, were influential to Lacan. He states how Catholicism as such was important in Lacan’s reflections:
Late in his life Lacan gave an interview in Rome, in which he claimed that “the Roman religion is the true one … There is one true religion and that is the Christian religion. By this comment, he meant that Christianity could best help people find meaning as science further explored the world, that is, de-natured nature (ironically, it seems that he felt it could attribute meaning precisely because of its consciousness of lack). Such an understanding cannot be the one found in his doctoral dedication; neither can this “religion” be psychoanalysis itself, which, when asked if it would become a religion, Lacan jeered, “Psychoanalysis? No. At least I hope not.” Instead, the fraternal religion of which the Parisian psychoanalyst speaks is, I contend, the religion that recognizes the Unconsciousness of God in contemporary society. (2022)
- 9.
‘Le psychanalyste assurément dirige la cure. Le premier principe, de cette cure, celui qu’on lui épelle d’abord, qu’il retrouve partout dans sa formation au point qu’il s’en imprègne, c’est qu’il ne doit point diriger le patient. La direction de conscience, au sens du guide moral qu’un fidèle du catholicisme peut y trouver, est ici exclue radicalement. Si la psychanalyse pose des problèmes à la théologie morale, ce ne sont pas ceux de la direction de conscience, en quoi nous rappelons que la direction de conscience en pose aussi. La direction de la cure est autre chose’ (Lacan, 1961, p. 1).
- 10.
It is important to note, that although director of conscience and spiritual direction are related, they are not the same. Director of conscience is a structural role and has more of a relationship to the sacrament of confession. Spiritual direction, although related, has more of a relationship to mystical theology and its pastoral application in daily life rather than having the overtly moralistic connotations of confession and direction of conscience (see Larkin, 1969). I assume Lacan knows the difference between these two linked but different traditions, as this accounts for the difference in his positions on the matter.
- 11.
‘Il sera donc jeté, quoi qu’il en ait, au cœur de ces perplexités de la direction spirituelle qui se sont élaborées depuis des siècles dans la voie d’une exigence de vérité, exigence liée à une personnification sans doute cruelle de cet Autre, mais qui, pour s’efforcer à faire place nette de toute autre affection dans les reins ou dans les cœurs, n’en avait pas trop mal sondé les replis. Et ceci suffit à faire évoluer le psychanalyste dans une région que la psychologie de faculté n’a jamais considérée qu’à la lorgnette’ (E : 456).
- 12.
‘Je dis toujours la vérité : pas tout, parce que toute la dire, on n’y arrive pas. La dire toute, c’est impossible, matériellement : les mots y manquent. C’est même par cet impossible que la vérité teinte au réel’ (Lacan, 1974, p. 1).
- 13.
‘Tout au contraire l’art de l’analyste doit être de suspendre les certitudes du sujet, jusqu’à ce que s’en consument les derniers mirages. Et c’est dans le discours que doit se scander leur résolution’ (E : 251).
- 14.
‘Il en résulte la présentification nécessaire d’un trou qui n’est plus à situer dans le transcendantal de la connaissance, lieu en somme fort bien venu à le transposer d’un recul, mais à une place plus proche à nous presser de l’oublier’ (E : 365).
- 15.
‘Quand je parle des mystiques, je parle simplement des trous qu’ils rencontrent. Je parle de La Nuit obscure par exemple, qui prouve que, quant à ce qu’il peut y avoir d’unitif dans les rapports de la créature à quoi que ce soit’ (SE, XIV : 346). (Unedited l’Association Freudienne Internationale version).
- 16.
Carlo Carretto (1910–1988) was a member of the Catholic Congregation of the Little Brothers of the Gospel. He lived for ten years in the Sahara Desert pursuing an eremitical life. The experience was written as Letters from the Desert (see Lane, 1998).
- 17.
‘Ceci veut dire que l’analyste intervient concrètement dans la dialectique de l’analyse en faisant le mort, en cadavérisant sa position comme disent les Chinois, soit par son silence là où il est l’Autre avec un grand A, soit en annulant sa propre résistance là où il est l’autre avec un petit a. Dans les deux cas et sous les incidences respectives du symbolique et de l’imaginaire, il présentifie la mort’ (E : 430). It seems as though Fink has left out the statement, ‘as the Chinese say,’ in this translation, so I have included it.
- 18.
‘Disons seulement que c’est là ce qui objecte pour nous à toute référence à la totalité dans l’individu, puisque le sujet y introduit la division, aussi bien que dans le collectif qui en est l’équivalent. La psychanalyse est proprement ce qui renvoie l’un et l’autre à leur position de mirage’ (E : 292).
- 19.
‘Mais si le psychanalyste ignore qu’il en va ainsi de la fonction de la parole, il n’en subira que plus fortement l’appel, et si c’est le vide qui d’abord s’y fait entendre, c’est en lui-même qu’il l’éprouvera et c’est au-delà de la parole qu’il cherchera une réalité qui comble ce vide’ (E 247–248).
- 20.
Hierotheos (Vlachos) of Nafpaktos serves the Metropolis of Nafpaktos and Agios Vlasios in the Church of Greece. He has written articles and books on the Church Fathers and his book Orthodox Psychotherapy articulates a connection between modern therapy and the healing power of the Desert Fathers (see Vlachos, 1994).
- 21.
‘La mesure dans laquelle le christianisme nous intéresse, j’entends au niveau de la théorie, se mesure précisément au rôle donné à la Grâce. Qui ne voit pas que la Grâce a le plus étroit rapport avec ce que moi, partant de fonctions théoriques qui n’ont certes rien à faire avec les effusions du cœur, je désigne comme d (A), désir de l’Autre’ (SE, XVI : 117). (Unedited l’Association Freudienne Internationale version)
- 22.
For an excellent exposition on the significance of Grace in Lacan’s work see: Theology after Lacan: The Passion for the Real (Davis et al., 2015, pp. 232–249).
- 23.
The word lorgnette is derived from the French lorgner which has connotations of squinting.
- 24.
This quote is from the original French 1966 Seuil edition.
- 25.
‘Nous savons les fausses pudeurs qui sont de mise dans la science à cet endroit, elles sont compagnes des fausses pensées de la cuistrerie, quand elle argué de l’ineffable du vécu, voire de la « conscience morbide », pour désarmer l’effort dont elle se dispense, à savoir celui qui est requis au point où justement ce n’est pas ineffable puisque ça parle, où le vécu, loin de séparer, se communique, où la subjectivité livre sa structure véritable, celle où ce qui s’analyse est identique à ce qui s’articule’ (E: 576).
- 26.
‘La paille des mots ne nous apparaît comme paille que pour autant que nous en avons séparé le grain des choses, et que c’est d’abord cette paille qui a porté ce grain’ (SE, VII : 77). (Unedited l’Association Freudienne Internationale version).
- 27.
‘Ces archétypes, ces symboles substantifiés tels qu’il les fait résidant d’une façon permanente dans une espèce de soubassement de l’âme humaine ? Qu’ont-ils de plus vrai que ce qui est prétendument à la surface ? Est-ce, par cette métaphore, que ce qui est dans les caves est forcément plus vrai que ce qui est au grenier ?’ (SE, I : 443). (Unedited l’Association Freudienne Internationale version).
- 28.
‘La psychanalyse n’est ni une Weltanschauung, ni une philosophie qui prétend donner la clé de l’univers. Elle est commandée par une visée particulière, qui est historiquement définie par l’élaboration de la notion de sujet. Elle pose cette notion de façon nouvelle, en reconduisant le sujet à sa dépendance signifiante’ (SE, XI : 73). (Edited by Miller). I have used the Miller edited version as opposed to the unedited l’Association Freudienne Internationale version as this quote, which appears in the question and answers section, is not found within its pages. Also, the German term Weltanschauung translates to Worldview.
- 29.
‘Dans l’anamnèse psychanalytique de réalité, mais de vérité, parce que c’est l’effet d’une parole pleine de réordonner les contingences passées en leur donnant le sens des nécessités à venir, telles que les constitue le peu de liberté par où le sujet les fait présentes’ (E :256). (Seuil Version).
- 30.
For an extended exposition on the integrity on the mutual dependency between spirituality and theology please see; McIntosh, Mark A. Mystical Theology: The Integrity of Spirituality and Theology (Challenges in Contemporary Theology). Edited by Lewis Ayers Jones and Gareth. 3rd ed. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 1998.
- 31.
‘La subjectivité n’y est admise que dans la parenthèse de l’illusion et la parole y est mise à l’index d’une recherche du vécu qui en devient le but suprême’ (E : 304–305). (Seuil version).
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Murphy, M.G. (2023). Lacan and Spiritual Direction. In: The Direction of Desire. The Palgrave Lacan Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33107-7_5
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