Abstract
To measure gender identity in past research, identity theorists have used the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Other researchers studying gender identity have used either the PAQ or Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). Both the PAQ and BSRI are classic gender scales that emerged 40+ years ago to measure gender meanings in American culture. At issue is whether these scales continue to reflect current gender meanings in American society. We investigate this by gathering contemporary meanings on men and women from a racially diverse group of over 900 U.S. young adults at two universities. We follow measurement procedures outlined in identity theory to measure gender meanings (Burke & Tully, Social Forces, 55(4), 881–897, 1977). When we compare respondents’ gender meanings with those in the PAQ and BSRI, words for masculine and feminine characteristics used 40+ years ago are not commonly used today. While we see the common distinction of men as agentic and women as communal, women are now described as more competent than men, and men and women tend to evaluate men more negatively than women. We use our findings to develop a new gender identity scale in which the meanings better reflect how man and women are seen in contemporary society. This can be used in future research to capture gender identity in modern times.
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Notes
- 1.
In this paper, we do not examine racial or class variations in gender meanings. We leave this to future research.
- 2.
The items Rosenkrantz and his colleagues used in their survey in the 1960s were obtained by asking college students to list characteristics typically associated with men and women.
- 3.
Sixteen items for men represent one end of the masculine scale (8 items) and the masculine end of the masculine-feminine scale (8 items). Sixteen items for women represent one end of the feminine scale (8 items) and the feminine end of the masculine-feminine scale (8 items).
- 4.
A full list of the collapsed meanings and the words that comprise them is available upon request.
- 5.
We are guided by the words that Eagly and associates (2020) use to characterize agency, competence, and communion.
- 6.
In a follow-up regression analysis, we estimated whether each of the meanings in Table 5.4 would still describe “Men usually are” compared to “Women usually are” when controlling for the other meanings in the table. Except for two meanings that perfectly described men but not women (angry and prideful), and two meanings that perfectly described women but not men (happy and homemaker), all meanings remained significant ( p ≤ .01).
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Acknowledgement
We thank members of the Social Psychology Research Seminar at the University of California, Riverside, Philip Brenner, Peter J. Burke, Jill Kiecolt, and Ashley Reichelmann for their feedback on earlier drafts.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: The Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) and Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
PAQ | ||
---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | |
Active | Aware of others’ feelings | |
Aggressive | Cries | |
Competitive | Devoted | |
Confident | Emotional | |
Decision-maker | Excitable | |
Does not give up | Feelings not easily hurt | |
Dominant | Gentle | |
Feelings not hurt | Helpful | |
Independent | Home-oriented | |
Never cries | Kind | |
No need for approval | Need for security | |
No need for security | Needs approval | |
Not excitable | Not aggressive | |
Superior | Submissive | |
Withstands pressure | Understanding | |
Worldly | Warm | |
BSRI | ||
Masculine | Feminine | Neutral |
Aggressive | Affectionate | Adaptable |
Ambitious | Cheerful | Conceited |
Analytical | Childlike | Conscientious |
Assertive | Compassionate | Conventional |
Athletic | Feminine | Friendly |
Competitive | Flatterable | Happy |
Defends beliefs | Gentle | Helpful |
Decision-maker | Gullible | Inefficient |
Dominant | Loves children | Jealous |
Forceful | Loyal | Likable |
Independent | Not harsh language | Moody |
Individualistic | Sensitive to others’ needs | Reliable |
Leader | Shy | Secretive |
Leadership abilities | Soft spoken | Sincere |
Masculine | Soothe hurt feelings | Solemn |
Risk-taker | Sympathetic | Tactful |
Self-reliant | Tender | Theatrical |
Self-sufficient | Understanding | Truthful |
Strong personality | Warm | Unpredictable |
Willing to take a stand | Yielding | Unsystematic |
Appendix 2: Final Gender Meanings and Their Descriptors for Mena
Gender meaning | Descriptors |
---|---|
Abrasive | Bad mouther, barbaric, crass, gruff, harsh, jerk, obnoxious, toxic, vulgar |
Aggressive | Explosive, passive-aggressive, sexually aggressive, violent |
Angry | Annoyed, irritated |
Arrogant | Boastful, brash, cocky, conceited, smart ass, stuck up |
Athletic | Agile, brawny, buff, built, burly, fit, gymgoer, muscular, sturdy, toned |
Bold | Adventurous, brave, brazen, courageous, daring, explorer, fearless, grit, sassy, thrill-seeking |
Confident b | |
Direct | Assertive, blunt, forward, outspoken, straightforward, upfront |
Disorganized | Chaotic, disorderly, messy, unorganized, unsystematic |
Dominant | Bossy, controlling, influence, in charge, overbearing, overpowering, possessive, take charge |
Dumb | Dense, idiot, ignorant, imbecilic, irrational, meathead, not smart, stupid, unintelligent |
Easygoing | Carefree, chill, cool, laidback, lighthearted, nonchalant, relaxed, unbothered, unflappable |
Egotistical | Narcissistic, self-absorbed, self-centered, self-loved, vain |
Funny | Comedian, fun, goofy, humorous, playful, silly, witty |
Immature | Childish |
Leader | Decisionmaker, initiator |
Loud | Boisterous |
Masculine | Macho, male, manly |
Prideful | Proud |
Protective | Chivalrous, protector |
Provider | Breadwinner, earner, financer, financially stable, household head, worker |
Rough | Unrefined |
Strong | Empowered, forceful, persuasive, powerful, resilient, thick-skinned, tough |
Tall | |
Unemotional | Emotionless, hardhearted, impassive, stoic |
Appendix 3: Final gender meanings and their descriptors for womena
Gender meaning | Descriptors |
---|---|
Appearance-oriented | Appearance, body image, cosmetics, looks, makeup, physical image |
Attractive | Adorable, beautiful, charming, cute, dapper, gorgeous, handsome, hot, lovable, pretty, sexy, suave |
Careful | Cautious, frugal, risk averse, wary |
Caring | Affectionate, caregiver, comforting, loving, nurturing, tender |
Clean | Hygienic |
Creative | Artistic, crafty, imaginative, innovative, talented |
Detailed | Thorough |
Emotional | Cries, emotion, expressive, moody, passionate, sentimental |
Empathetic | Compassionate, sympathetic, understanding |
Feminine | Effeminate, female, girly, ladylike, womanly |
Focused | Alert, astute, attentive, aware, listener, mindful, observant, observer, perceptive, vigilant, watchful |
Gentle | Soft |
Helpful | Big heart, considerate, encouraging, generous, giving, supportive, thoughtful |
Kind | Altruistic, nice, pleasant, selfless, softhearted, sweet |
Mature b | |
Mistreated | Attacked, belittled, catcalled, criticized, discriminated, disrespected, harassed, ignored, interrupted, objectified, oppressed, overlooked, overpowered, ridiculed, sexualized, shunned, stereotyped, stigmatized, unappreciated, undermined |
Multitasker | Multi-focused |
Openminded | Accepting, adaptable, adjustable, agreeable, broadminded, consenting, flexible, forgiving, open, receptive, tolerant, versatile, welcoming |
Organized | Methodical, meticulous, neat, planner, prepared, scheduled, structured, tidy |
Sensitive | Soulful, thin-skinned |
Short | |
Small | Dainty, lean, petite, skinny, slim |
Smart | Academic, analytical, book smart, brain smart, bright, clever, educated, erudite, insightful, intellectual, intelligent, knowledgeable, logical, rational, reason, studious, well-read, wisdom, wise |
Submissive | Capitulation, compliant, docile, passive, subordinate |
Weak | Delicate, fragile, frail, not tough, vulnerable, wimp |
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Stets, J.E., Kushida, M., Fares, P., Whitham, M.M. (2023). Exploring Current Gender Meanings: Creating a New Gender Identity Scale. In: Stets, J.E., Reichelmann, A.V., Kiecolt, K.J. (eds) Advancing Identity Theory, Measurement, and Research. Frontiers in Sociology and Social Research, vol 10. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32986-9_5
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