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Role of Women in Sustainable Soil Management: Some Legal Reflections

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Soil Law and Governance in India

Part of the book series: International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy ((REGPER))

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Abstract

There is a close relationship between soil health and women. If there is soil erosion, women are directly affected both like all other human beings as well as due to their gender or sex. They face double victimization irrespective of their age. Women play a crucial role in sustainable soil management (SSM) that ensures women’s empowerment including food, economic and social security. Both come under the ambit of Goals 5 and 15 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030. Though women share the primary burden of providing food and water to the families, their contribution, especially as a farmer, hardly get recognition. The role of women in SSM management needs to be valued and duly factored in decision-making at all levels. Existing international law and domestic law in India, need to give specific attention to women’s land rights, right to inheritance, gender equality in agriculture related work. In this context, the present study seeks to examine the content and contours of role women can play in SSM that can also mitigate the consequences primarily resulting from soil degradation. It analyzes existing framework of international law and the domestic laws in India to address the issue of women’s rights and their contributions and suggests a way forward.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Krishan (2014); see also, Williams (2008), pp. 196–198.

  2. 2.

    Tapomoy Ghosh (2017), “Nabanna Utsav: the traditional, rural festival of new harvest”, Anandabazar Potrika, 25 December 2017; available at: Nabanna Utsav: the traditional, rural festival of new harvest - Anandabazar (accessed on 12 December 2022).

  3. 3.

    UN Women (2019), p. 17; available at: http://catalogue.unccd.int/1223_Gender_Manual.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  4. 4.

    UNDP (2007); available at: gender_content_END.indd (undp.org) (accessed on 19 November 2022).

  5. 5.

    Tamara et al. (2019), pp. 303–313; available at: https://soil.copernicus.org/articles/5/303/2019/ (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  6. 6.

    Pattnaik et al. (2018), p. 141.

  7. 7.

    Government of India (2019a), p. 146; available at: http://psa.gov.in/sites/default/files/pdf/Report%20of%20Policies%20and%20Action_4-9-2019.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  8. 8.

    Pattnaik (2018), n. 6, p. 141.

  9. 9.

    UNDP (2007), n. 4.

  10. 10.

    Mehra (1995); available at: https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Women-Land-and-Sustainable-Development.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  11. 11.

    European Commission (2020); available at: Caring for soil is caring for life - Publications Office of the EU (europa.eu); European Institute for Gender Equality (2016); available at: empowerment of women | European Institute for Gender Equality (europa.eu) (accessed on 19 November 2022).

  12. 12.

    FAO (2019); available at: Mainstreaming gender for sustainable soil management (fao.org) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  13. 13.

    Zhang et al. (2019); available at: https://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/133203/filename/133414.pdf; CGAIR Research Programme on Water, Land and Ecosystems; available at: https://wle.cgiar.org/ (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  14. 14.

    Zhang et al. (2019); available at: https://www.ifpri.org/publication/gendered-opportunities-improving-soil-health-conceptual-framework-help-set-research. Also see, Zhang (2020); available at: https://www.ifpri.org/blog/why-gender-matters-soil-health-part-sustainable-food-systems (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  15. 15.

    FAO (2019), n. 12.

  16. 16.

    Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Partnership Platform (2019), Women-led Climate Resilient Farming’ Model (WCRF), #SDG Action 43073; available at: ‘Women-led Climate Resilient Farming’ Model (WCRF) | Department of Economic and Social Affairs (un.org) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  17. 17.

    Ari (2014); available at: https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/special-edition-agriculture-2014/gendering-agriculture (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  18. 18.

    Parida et al. (2020); available at: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/weather-woes-add-to-farmer-suicide-cases/article30802206.ece (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  19. 19.

    Neelima (2019); available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/farmer-suicides-the-fate-of-the-women-left-behind/story-jhJ1bwcMu9ilbAAXntCbOI.html (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  20. 20.

    Shiva (2015); available at: https://www.oecd.org/environment/save-our-soil.htm (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  21. 21.

    FAO (2019), n. 12.

  22. 22.

    Ibid.

  23. 23.

    Ibid.

  24. 24.

    Ibid.

  25. 25.

    IFC, Gender-Smart Business Solutions: Strengthening Women Farmers in DCM Shriram’s Sugarcane Value Chain; available at: Gender_Case_Study_Sugarcane_India_April11_FINAL-Fedra.pdf (ifc.org) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  26. 26.

    Seeley et al. (2000); available at: GK92.QXD (core.ac.uk) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  27. 27.

    Ibid.

  28. 28.

    ICRISAT, Managing Soil and Water: Equipping nurturers - An Indian farmer shares her story; available at: Managing soil and water – ICRISAT (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  29. 29.

    Government of India (2019b); available at: FFH201819_Eng.pdf (agricoop.gov.in) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  30. 30.

    SDG Partnership Platform (2019), n.16.

  31. 31.

    Ibid.

  32. 32.

    UNDP India (2016); available at: Women Farmers Combat Land Degradation in Nagaland - ICTpost (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  33. 33.

    Claringbould (2019); available at: Comment view | Global Forum on Food Security and Nutrition (FSN Forum) (fao.org) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  34. 34.

    UNCCD (2019); UN Doc. ICCD/COP(14)/18, para 29; available at: Microsoft Word - 1910486E.docx (unccd.int) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  35. 35.

    Dave et al. (2017); available at: https://landportal.org/debates/2017/womens-land-rights-india-and-sustainable-development-goals-sdgs. UN (2015), Sustainable Development Goals; available at: Goal 11 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs (un.org) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  36. 36.

    India Code, The Constitution of India, Preamble; available at: India Code: Constitution of India; COI_English.pdf (legislative.gov.in) (accessed on 09 December 2022).

  37. 37.

    Ibid, Part III: Right to equality Articles 14–18; Right to Freedom Articles 19–22; Right against exploitation Articles 23–24; Right to freedom of religion Articles 25–28; Cultural and educational rights Articles 29–31; Right to Constitutional remedy: Article 32.

  38. 38.

    Ibid, Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy Articles 36–51.

  39. 39.

    Ibid, Part VI A, Fundamental duties: Article 51A.

  40. 40.

    Ministry of Women & Child Development (2002); available at: National Policy for Women Empowerment | Ministry of Women & Child Development (wcd.nic.in) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  41. 41.

    OHCHR (1979); available at: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women New York, 18 December 1979 | OHCHR; India has Signed: 1980, Ratification/Accession: 1993 the CEDAW; available at: - OHCHR Dashboard (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  42. 42.

    Ibid.

  43. 43.

    Government of India (2019b), n. 7.

  44. 44.

    OHCHR (1979), CEDAW Article 14 (g), n. 41.

  45. 45.

    Daley (2013); available at: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/RuralWomen/InternationalLandCoalition.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  46. 46.

    HLRN, Importance of Land and Housing Rights for Women; available at: https://www.hlrn.org.in/womens-rights(accessed on 04 September 2022). All India Report on Agriculture Census 2015-16; available at: https://agcensus.nic.in/document/agcen1516/ac_1516_report_final-220221.pdf (accessed 0n 25 September 2022).

  47. 47.

    The Statesman (2019), Women of the Soil, 17 July 2019; available at: Women of the soil - The Statesman (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  48. 48.

    Oxfam India (2018); available at: Women Empowerment - Female Farmers are Revolutionizing Agriculture in India| Oxfam India (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  49. 49.

    FAO, Women and land: a need for multi-level transformation; available at: Land and livelihoods: Making land rights real for India’s rural poor (fao.org); FAO, The gender gap in land rights; The gender gap in land rights (fao.org) (accessed on 21 November 2022).

  50. 50.

    India Code, n.36.

  51. 51.

    Parwez (2009), p. 6, 11–12.

  52. 52.

    Dave, n. 35.

  53. 53.

    Section 3 (26) of the General Clauses Act, 1897; available at: A1897-10.pdf (legislative.gov.in) (accessed on 04 September 2022). see, 2(6) of the Registration Act, 1908 provides, “(6) “Immovable Property” includes land…”. Section 269UA (d) of the Income Tax Act 1961 “(d) “immovable property” means— (i) any land…”; available at: DP-cont.p65 (dor.gov.in) (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  54. 54.

    Section 2 (14) (iii) of the Income Tax Act 1961 defines agricultural land; available at: DP-cont.p65 (dor.gov.in) (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  55. 55.

    The Hindu Succession Act 1956, Section 6; available at: The Hindu Succession Act, 1956|Legislative Department | Ministry of Law and Justice | GoI (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  56. 56.

    The Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005; available at: http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2005/E_45_2012_114.pdf(accessed on 04 September 2022).

  57. 57.

    Ibid.

  58. 58.

    The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, Section 4(2), n. 55.

  59. 59.

    Section 2 of the 2005 HSA Amendment Act provides: “(2). In Section 4 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 (hereinafter referred to as the principal Act), subsection (2) shall be omitted;” n. 56.

  60. 60.

    Agarwal (2005); available at: Date:25/09/2005 URL: http://www.binaagarwal.com (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  61. 61.

    Valera et al. (2018); available at: Women’s Land Title Ownership and Empowerment: Evidence from India (EWP 559) (adb.org) (accessed on 22 November 2022); Agarwal (1998), pp. 1–48; UN Women South Asia (2012), Women, Land and Agriculture in Rural India, p. 34; available at: un_women_land_agriculture_in_rural_india pdf.ashx (unwomen.org) (accessed on 22 November 2022). Also see, Section 24 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, n. 55. “Section 24 of the principal Act shall be omitted”, the Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005, n. 56.

  62. 62.

    Pandey, S, Property Rights Of Indian Women; available at: Microsoft Word - Women’s Property Rights in India final Shruti Pandey.doc (womenslinkworldwide.org) (accessed on 22 November 2022). Also see, the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937; A1937-26.pdf (legislative.gov.in) (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  63. 63.

    FAO, n. 12.

  64. 64.

    The Indian Succession Act 1925: Sections 31 to 49 deal with Christian succession and Sections 50 to 56 deal with succession for Parsis”; see, The Indian Succession Act 1925; available at: https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/2385/1/a1925-39.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  65. 65.

    Sircar (2016); available at: Women’s Right to Agricultural Land: Removing legal barriers for achieving gender equality (openrepository.com) (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  66. 66.

    The Indian Succession Act, 1956, n. 64. Also see, NCW, Chapter-1 Tribal Customary Law and Women’s Status: An Introduction; available at: http://ncwapps.nic.in/pdfreports/Customary%20Law.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  67. 67.

    Centre for women’s Studies, Justice Basheer Ahmed Sayeed College for Women, Project Report tittle: “Property Right of Women in Tamil Nadu”; available at: Land Rights of Women (ncwapps.nic.in) (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  68. 68.

    Mehta (2019); available at: Inheritance rights of women: How to protect them and how succession laws vary - The Economic Times (indiatimes.com) (accessed on 22 November 2022).

  69. 69.

    Parwez, n. 51.

  70. 70.

    FAO (2019), n. 12.

  71. 71.

    Ibid.

  72. 72.

    Bedi (2018); available at: https://thewire.in/women/women-farmers-agriculture-rights (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  73. 73.

    Bedi (2018), n. 72.

  74. 74.

    Planning Commission (2013); available at: Twelfth Five Year Plan_vol 3.indb (nhm.gov.in) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  75. 75.

    Saxena (2012); available at: un_women_land_agriculture_in_rural_india pdf.ashx (unwomen.org) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  76. 76.

    FAO (2019), n. 12.

  77. 77.

    Gupta (2002), pp. 1746–1754.

  78. 78.

    Oxfam India (2018), n. 48.

  79. 79.

    India Code, The Constitution of India, Article 246, n.36.

  80. 80.

    Entry 18 provides: “Land, that is to say, rights in or over land, land tenures including the relation of landlord and tenant, and the collection of rents; transfer and alienation of agricultural land; land improvement and agricultural loans; colonization”; ibid, Seventh Schedule, List II—State List, pp. 317–321 at 318.

  81. 81.

    Ibid, Ninth Schedule, Article 31 B, pp. 327–344.

  82. 82.

    Ibid, Article 31 B, Ninth Schedule (Validation of certain Acts and Regulations). For example, The Maharashtra Agricultural Lands (Ceiling on Holdings) (Amendment) Act, 1975 (Maharashtra Act II of 1976) appears at number 160 in the Ninth Schedule.

  83. 83.

    Saxena (2019); available at: Finance Minister Ignores Fundamental Rights of Women Farmers to Inherit Land (thewire.in) (accessed on 24 November 2022). Also see, Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 (Rajasthan Act No. 3 of 1955), Bare Acts Live; available at: Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 (bareactslive.com) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  84. 84.

    Centre for women’s Studies, n. 67.

  85. 85.

    Parwez, n. 51.

  86. 86.

    Saxena (2019), n. 83.

  87. 87.

    Deo and Akansha (2019); available at: Gender-Inequality-in-Inheritance-Laws-The-case-of-agricultural-land-in-India-1.pdf (landesa.org) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  88. 88.

    Babu Ram v. Santokh Singh (deceased) through his LRs and others, Civil Appeal No. 2553 of 2019, Judgement of 7 March 2019; available at: 40770_2018_Judgement_07-Mar-2019.pdf (sci.gov.in). Also see, Archna v. DoC, Amroha (2015); Roshan Lal v. Pritam Singh (2012); Nirmal and Others v Government of NCT of Delhi & Others (2010), WP (C) 6435/2007, 4 June 2010; available at: Nirmala & Others vs Government Of Nct Of Delhi & Others on 4 June, 2010 (indiankanoon.org) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  89. 89.

    Section 22 of the Hindu Succession Act 1956, n. 60.

  90. 90.

    Roshan Lal (Deceased) v. Pritam Singh and Others, R. S. A. No. 258 of 2012; Judgement of 1 March 2018. Also see, Roshan Lal (Deceased) Through His...vs Pritam Singh & Others on 1 March, 2018; available at: Roshan Lal (Deceased) Through His ... vs Pritam Singh & Others on 1 March, 2018 (indiankanoon.org) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  91. 91.

    Nirmala & Ors. vs Govt. Of NCT of Delhi & Ors., W.P.(C) 7263/2007; Judgement of 7 July, 2008; available at: Nirmala & Ors. vs Govt. Of Nct Of Delhi & Ors. on 7 July, 2008 (indiankanoon.org) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  92. 92.

    Seeley et al. (2000); available at: GK92.QXD (core.ac.uk) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  93. 93.

    Government of India (2008), Common Guidelines for Watershed Development Projects, 2008; available at: Microsoft Word - WSDGuidelinesfinalversion13-2-08.doc (dolr.gov.in) (accessed on 24 November 2021).

  94. 94.

    The World Bank (2020); available at: Forest area (% of land area) | Data (worldbank.org) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  95. 95.

    Kumar (2020).

  96. 96.

    The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006; available at: FRARulesBook.pdf (tribal.nic.in) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  97. 97.

    Government of India (2022), The Constitution of India, n.79, Part X.

  98. 98.

    Government of India (2022), Fifth Schedule [Article 244(1)] Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes, n.79. Also see, the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992: Panchayati Raj institutions; available at: The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992| National Portal of India (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  99. 99.

    Raz (1974), pp. 94–111; available at: https://academic.oup.com/ajj/article/19/1/94/182193 (accessed on 24 November 2022). Also see, Harris (1971), pp. 103–133.

  100. 100.

    Government of India (2022), The Constitution of India, Eleventh Schedule; Article 243G inserted by the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992, n. 79, pp. 349–350.

  101. 101.

    Kumar, Archana N., A Study on Women Entitlements in the Forest Rights Act, 2006 in DumbrigudaMandal, Vizag, Conducted for CRY Net Collective and Samata, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai; available at: Report_on_FRA.pdf (indiaenvironmentportal.org.in) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  102. 102.

    Zaidi (2019), p. 48.

  103. 103.

    Jain (1991), pp. 163–178; available at: http://www.fao.org/3/r0465e/r0465e03.htm (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  104. 104.

    India Today (2017); available at: Chipko movement founder Sunderlal Bahuguna: The defender of Himalayas turns 90 - India Today (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  105. 105.

    NDTV (2018), “Chipko Movement: What it is all about?”, 26 March 2018; available at: Chipko Movement: What Is It All About (ndtv.com) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  106. 106.

    Orissa Mining Corpn. Ltd. v. Ministry of Environment & Forests (2013) 6 SCC 476, 18 April 2013; available at: Orissa Mining Corporation Ltd vs Ministry Of Environment & Forest ... on 18 April, 2013 (indiankanoon.org) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  107. 107.

    Mishra (2013); available at: Niyamgiri tribals reject Vedanta’s mining project - BusinessToday - Issue Date: Sep 15, 2013 (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  108. 108.

    Rajagopal (2019a); available at: SC orders States’ chief secretaries to evict rejected claimants under Forest Rights Act - The Hindu (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  109. 109.

    Rajagopal (2019b); available at: SC stays Feb 13 order for eviction of tribals, forest dwellers - The Hindu (accessed on 24 November 2022). Also see, “Supreme Court Defers Review Order on Forest Rights Act”, The Quint, 24 July 2019; available at: Supreme Court Defers Review Order on Forest Rights Act (thequint.com) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  110. 110.

    Government of India (2016); available at: women empowerment poliy_Final_17May.pdf (wcd.nic.in) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  111. 111.

    Ibid.

  112. 112.

    Government of India (2022), The Constitution of India, Concurrent List (List - III) of the Seventh Schedule, n.79, pp. 321–324 at 324; Entry 42 provides: “Acquisition and requisitioning of property”.

  113. 113.

    The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013; available at: A2013-30.pdf (legislative.gov.in) (accessed on 24 November 2022).

  114. 114.

    Ibid, section 3.

  115. 115.

    Ibid, section 45.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Franczak (2017); available at: The Exclusion of Women’s Interests in India’s Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation, and Resettlement Act, 2013 – McGill Human Rights Interns (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  118. 118.

    Desai (2022a); Blog Special: Global Climate Change as a Planetary Concern: Making International Law Work (sisblogjnu.wixsite.com). Also see, UN (2022), Secretary-General’s remarks to Stockholm+50 international meeting, Stockholm, 02 June 2022; Secretary-General’s remarks to Stockholm+50 international meeting [as delivered] | United Nations Secretary-General (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  119. 119.

    Desai (2022b); Blog Special: Poverty as a Violation Human Rights: Taking International Law Seriously (sisblogjnu.wixsite.com) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  120. 120.

    Press Information Bureau (2021); https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1775489 (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  121. 121.

    Swaminathan (2002), pp. 778–780. Also see, FAO (2017), “Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management”; available at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl813e.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2022); Bhattacharyya (2016), p. 565; available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/8/6/565/htm (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  122. 122.

    Ibid.

  123. 123.

    India Code (2001), The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001; available at: A2001-53.pdf (legislative.gov.in) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  124. 124.

    Government of India (2007), National Policy for Farmers 2007, paragraph 3.2, p. 4; Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture; available at: npff2007 (1).pdf (agricoop.nic.in) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  125. 125.

    Jebaraj (2019); available at: Who is a farmer? Government has no clear definition - The Hindu (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  126. 126.

    WTO (1994), Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, The TRIPS Agreement is Annex 1C of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, signed in Marrakesh, Morocco on 15 April 1994; WTO | intellectual property (TRIPS) - agreement text - contents (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  127. 127.

    India Code (2001), n. 123, Section 2 (c).

  128. 128.

    Bahl (2017).

  129. 129.

    Government of India (2002), The Biological Diversity Act 2002; available at: The Biological Diversity Act, 2002|Legislative Department | Ministry of Law and Justice | GoI (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  130. 130.

    CBD (1992), Convention on Biological Diversity; available at: cbd-en.pdf (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  131. 131.

    CBD (1992), List of Parties; available at: List of Parties (cbd.int) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  132. 132.

    CBD (2017), “What is Gender and Biodiversity?”, 27 March 2017; available at: What is Gender and Biodiversity? (cbd.int) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  133. 133.

    CBD (2017), “Why is it important?”, 06 March 2017; available at: Why is it Important? (cbd.int) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  134. 134.

    CBD (2017), 2015-2020 Gender Plan of Action; available at: https://www.cbd.int/gender/action-plan/ (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  135. 135.

    CBD (2019), “Gender Mainstreaming: “What Needs to be Done?”, 30 May 2019; available at: What Needs to be Done? (cbd.int) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  136. 136.

    National Biodiversity Authority, “Frequently Asked Questions on the Biological Diversity Act”; available at: National Biodiversity Authority (nbaindia.org); National Biodiversity Authority - FAQ (nbaindia.org) (accessed on 27 November 2022).

  137. 137.

    Shiva (1992), p. 208.

  138. 138.

    Ibid.

  139. 139.

    FAO (2015a), p. 29; available at: Voluntary guide for national seed policy formulation (fao.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  140. 140.

    Ibid, p. 32.

  141. 141.

    The Seeds Act, 1966 (Act No.54 of 1966); available at: 4-rti-19-2-18.pdf (gujarat.gov.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  142. 142.

    National Seeds Policy, 2002; available at: 7.National_Seed_Policy_2002 (mphorticulture.gov.in) (accessed on 04 September 2022).

  143. 143.

    PRS India (2019), PRS India (2019), The Seeds Bill, 2019; available at: Draft Seeds Bill, 2019.pdf (prsindia.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  144. 144.

    For instance, see Damodaran (2019); available at: Explained: Sowing a new Seeds regime | Explained News,The Indian Express; Singh and Rao (2019); available at: Will Seed Bill 2019 deliver the goods? - The Hindu BusinessLine (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  145. 145.

    Shiva (2019); available at: THE SEED BILL 2019 IS A THREAT TO INDIA’S SEED SOVEREIGNTY AND FARMERS RIGHTS. - (udaen.info) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  146. 146.

    Lahariya and Sethi (2015); available at: India’s quiet women farmers slip into crisis | Business Standard News (business-standard.com) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  147. 147.

    Kurmanath (2018); available at: Swaminathan moves Bill in Rajya Sabha for women farmers - The Hindu BusinessLine (accessed on 08 December 2022). Also see, “Women Farmer’s need Policy Attention”, the Hindu Businessline, 9 January 2018, India farming women policy issues migration - The Hindu BusinessLine.

  148. 148.

    Seeley et al. (2000), n. 26.

  149. 149.

    Government of India (2019b), n. 7.

  150. 150.

    India Code, Article 39, n. 36.

  151. 151.

    Chen (1989).

  152. 152.

    Government of India (2011), Employment and Unemployment Situation in India 2009-10, NSS Report No. 537(66/10/1); available at: India - Employment and Unemployment, July 2009 - June 2010, 66th Round (microdata.gov.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  153. 153.

    Ibid, p. 15.

  154. 154.

    ILO (2018), pp. 26–27; available at: wcms_638305.pdf (ilo.org) (accessed on 8 December 2022).

  155. 155.

    Singh, Vaishnavi (2020), “Gender Wage Gap in India”, 22 July 2020; available at: Infographic: Gender Wage Gap In India (feminisminindia.com).

  156. 156.

    World Economic Forum (2022), Global Gender Gap Report 2022; available at: Preface - Global Gender Gap Report 2022 | World Economic Forum (weforum.org) (accessed on 8 December 2022).

  157. 157.

    Chen (1989), n. 151.

  158. 158.

    For this see, generally, Lahariya and Sethi (2015); available at: India’s quiet women farmers slip into crisis | Business Standard News (business-standard.com); Purohit (2019); available at: As debt grows, more Indian women farmers taking their lives | Agriculture | Al Jazeera (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  159. 159.

    The Minimum Wages Act, 1948, Part II; available at: THE MINIMUM WAGES ACT, 1948 (mahaonline.gov.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  160. 160.

    Ibid.

  161. 161.

    Mulye (2019); available at: Over 13,000 female sugarcane labourers in Beed have undergone uterus removal surgery, says probe pan- The New Indian Express (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  162. 162.

    NCW, Agriculture Sector in India; available at: Untitled-3 (ncwapps.nic.in) (accessed on 09 December 2022).

  163. 163.

    Ibid.

  164. 164.

    Henry and Adams (2018); available at: Spotlight on sexual violence and harassment in commercial agriculture: Lower and middle income countries (ilo.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  165. 165.

    Yugantar Education Society, A Research Study on the Nature, Incidence, Extent and Impact of Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place in the State of Maharashtra, submitted to Department of Women & Child Development, Government Of India; available at: Microsoft Word - A_Study_on_Nature_Incidence_Extent_And_Impact_Of_Sexual_Harassment_Of_Women_At_Work_Place_In_The_State_Of_Maha (ncwapps.nic.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  166. 166.

    ILO (2019), Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190); available at: Convention C190 - Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190) (ilo.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  167. 167.

    OHCHR, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: General Recommendations; OHCHR | General recommendations (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  168. 168.

    The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, Section 2 (n); available at: A2013-14.pdf (legislative.gov.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  169. 169.

    The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005;available at: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005|Legislative Department | Ministry of Law and Justice | GoI (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  170. 170.

    Planning Commission (2013), Twelfth Five Year Plan, n. 74.

  171. 171.

    FAO, “Women’s contributions to agricultural production and food security: Current status and perspectives”; available at: Gender food security (fao.org) (accessed on 09December 2022).

  172. 172.

    Desai and Mandal (2021), pp. 137–157; available at: epl210055 (iospress.com); IPCC (2019), Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems: Summary for Policymakers, 07 August 2019; available at: 4.-SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf (ipcc.ch). (accessed on 09 December 2022).

  173. 173.

    Alvarez (2019); available at: Female farmers in India feed their families despite devastating climate change | Yale Environment Review (accessed on 09 December 2022).

  174. 174.

    Jain (1984), pp. 12–20; available at: Unasylva - No. 146 - Women in forestry - Standing up for trees: Women’s role in the Chipko Movement (fao.org) (accessed on 09 December 2022).

  175. 175.

    Prabhakaran (2009); available at: A rainforest’s saga of survival - The Hindu (accessed on 08 September 2022).

  176. 176.

    Ibid.

  177. 177.

    Navdanya; About Us – Navdanya international; Malhotra (2008); available at: 10 most powerful movements - India Today (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  178. 178.

    Ibid.

  179. 179.

    Narmada Bachao Andolan vs Union of India and Others, 18 October, 2000; available at: Narmada Bachao Andolan vs Union Of India And Others on 18 October, 2000 (indiankanoon.org). Also see, Narmada Bachao Andolan v. State of M.P., AIR 2011 SC 1989; available at: Narmada Bachao Andolan vs State Of M.P. & Anr on 11 May, 2011 (indiankanoon.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  180. 180.

    Mehta (2005), pp. 613–647; available at: Internally-Displaced Persons and the Sardar Sarovar Project: A Case for Rehabilitative Reform in Rural Media (american.edu) (accessed on 08 September 2022).

  181. 181.

    Outlook (2022); https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/mayilamma/228877. Also see, Giridharadas (2005); available at: Indian water case pits village against a giant - The New York Times (nytimes.com) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  182. 182.

    Bijoy (2006), pp. 4332–4339.

  183. 183.

    Government of India (2007), p. 17; available at: ground-water (indiawaterportal.org). Also see, Perumatty Grama Panchayatvs State of Kerala on 16 December, 2003, 2004 (1) KLT 731; Perumatty Grama Panchayat vs State Of Kerala on 16 December, 2003 (indiankanoon.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  184. 184.

    Dhillon (2018); available at: ’It’s for my daughter’s memory’: the Indian village where every girl’s life is celebrated | India | The Guardian (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  185. 185.

    Singh (2013); available at: A village that plants 111 trees for every girl born in Rajasthan - The Hindu (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  186. 186.

    Government of India (2022), Soil Health Card: Model Village Program; available at: Soil Health Card (dac.gov.in) (accessed on 09 December 2022).

  187. 187.

    Indian Council for Food and Agriculture, Soil Health Management in India; available at: Soil_Health_Management_in_India.pdf (icfa.org.in). Also see, Government of India, Soil Health Card; available at: https://soilhealth.dac.gov.in/ (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  188. 188.

    Government of India (2019c); available at: Soil Health Card (dac.gov.in); Guidelines_for_Demonstrations_under_SHC_Scheme.pdf (dac.gov.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  189. 189.

    National Gender Resource Centre in Agriculture, The Farm Women Friendly Hand Book; available at: ext_rpt_1.pdf (agricoop.nic.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  190. 190.

    Krishi Vistar, National Gender Resource Centre in Agriculture; available at: http://krishivistar.gov.in/Ngrca.aspx. Also see, Vikaspedia, Special provisions for women farmers in national schemes; available at: Special provisions for women farmers in national schemes — Vikaspedia (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  191. 191.

    National Centre of Organic Farming Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (2014), Biofertilizers and Organic Fertilizers (Control), Order, 1985; available at: Biofertilizers and Organic Fertilizers in Fertilizer (Control) Order, 1985 - DocsLib (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  192. 192.

    UN Women South Asia (2012), n. 66.

  193. 193.

    Government of India (2018), Lok Sabha Question No: 1011 (answered on 24 July 2018); Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare; available at: Questions : Lok Sabha (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  194. 194.

    Ministry of Law and Justice (2013), The National Food Security Act, 2013 (No. 20 of 2013); available at: 201320.pdf (indiacode.nic.in) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  195. 195.

    Ibid.

  196. 196.

    Swaminathan (2017), p. 314. Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (2014), Reflections of Women Farmers Programme for the Empowerment of Women Farmers; available at: Reflection_of_mahila_kisan_MKSP_MSSRF.pdf (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  197. 197.

    Ibid.

  198. 198.

    FAO, Gender issues in agricultural and rural development policy in Asia and the Pacific ( Stephens, Alexandra; Resource Papers Part – III); available at: Gender issues in agricultural an rural development policy in Asia and the Pacific (fao.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  199. 199.

    Oxfam International, India: Women farmers persevere; available at: India: Women farmers persevere | Oxfam International (accessed on 08 December 2022).

  200. 200.

    Saxena (2012), n. 75.

  201. 201.

    FAO (2015b); available at: Healthy soils are the basis for healthy food production (fao.org) (accessed on 08 December 2022).

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    Moumita Mandal

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    Moumita Mandal

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    Bharat H. Desai

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Mandal, M. (2023). Role of Women in Sustainable Soil Management: Some Legal Reflections. In: Desai, B.H. (eds) Soil Law and Governance in India. International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32360-7_7

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