Skip to main content

Bacterial Diseases

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Hair in Infectious Disease

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Pitney LK, O’Brien B, Pitney MJ. Acne necrotica (necrotizing lymphocytic folliculitis): an enigmatic and under-recognised dermatosis. Australas J Dermatol. 2018;59(1):e53–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Koblenzer CS. Psychosomatic concepts in dermatology. A dermatologist-psychoanalyst’s viewpoint. Arch Dermatol. 1983;119(6):501–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Kossard S, Collins A, McCrossin I. Necrotizing lymphocytic folliculitis: the early lesion of acne necrotica (varioliformis). J Am Acad Dermatol. 1987;16(5 Pt 1):1007–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. McLean WHI. Close shave for a keratin disorder-K6hf polymorphism linked to pseudofolliculitis barbae. J Invest Dermatol. 2004;122(3):xi–xiii.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Winter H, Schissel D, Parry DAD, Smith TA, Liovic M, Birgitte Lane E, Edler L, Langbein L, Jave-Suarez LF, Rogers MA, Wilde J, Peters G, Schweizer J. An unusual Ala12Thr polymorphism in the 1A alpha-helical segment of the companion layer-specific keratin K6hf: evidence for a risk factor in the etiology of the common hair disorder pseudofolliculitis barbae. J Invest Dermatol. 2004;122(3):652–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Cook-Bolden FE, Barba A, Halder R, Taylor S. Twice-daily applications of benzoyl peroxide 5%/clindamycin 1% gel versus vehicle in the treatment of pseudofolliculitis barbae. Cutis. 2004;73(6 Suppl):18–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Roberts WE. Chemical peeling in ethnic/dark skin. Dermatol Ther. 2004;17(2):196–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Leheta TM. Comparative evaluation of long pulse Alexandrite laser and intense pulsed light systems for pseudofolliculitis barbae treatment with one year of follow up. Indian J Dermatol. 2009;54(4):364–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Xia Y, Cho S, Howard RS, Maggio KL. Topical eflornithine hydrochloride improves the effectiveness of standard laser hair removal for treating pseudofolliculitis barbae: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;67(4):694–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Shokeir H, Samy N, Taymour M. Pseudofolliculitis barbae treatment: efficacy of topical eflornithine, long-pulsed Nd-YAG laser versus their combination. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2021;20(11):3517–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Quinquaud E. Folliculite épilante et destructive des régions values. Bull Mém Soc Méd Paris. 1888;5:395–8.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Garcia-Bustinduy M, Lecuona M, Guimera F, Saez M, Dorta S, Sanchez R, et al. Citrobacter koseri in scalp folliculitis. Cutis. 2002;69:393–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Laymon CW. The cicatricial alopecias; an historical and clinical review and an histologic investigation. J Invest Dermatol. 1947;8:99–122.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Smith NP, Sanderson KV. Tufted hair folliculitis of the scalp. J R Soc Med. 1978;71:606–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Metz J, Metz G. Nevoid hair bundles in man. Hautarzt. 1978;29:586–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Dalziel KL, Telfer NR, Wilson CL, Dawber RP, Tufted folliculitis. A specific bacterial disease? Am J Dermatopathol. 1990;12:37–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Annessi G. Tufted folliculitis of the scalp: a distinctive clinicohistological variant of folliculitis decalvans. Br J Dermatol. 1998;138:799–805.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Powell JJ, Dawber RP, Gatter K. Folliculitis decalvans including tufted folliculitis: clinical, histological and therapeutic findings. Br J Dermatol. 1999;140:328–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Rakowska A, Slowinska M, Kowalska-Oledzka E, Warszawik O, Czuwara J, Olszewska M, et al. Trichoscopy of cicatricial alopecia. J Drugs Dermatol. 2012;11:753–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Miura M, Dekio I, Yamasaki Y, Ohyama M. Sparing of the bulge area could preserve intact lower portion of hair follicles in a case of tufted folliculitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2009;23:87–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. James C, Langlois NE. Folliculitis decalvans: a rare scarring alopecia misinterpreted as a laceration of the scalp at the scene. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2013;9:594–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Rezende HD, Dias MFRG, Kempf W, Trüeb RM. Linear circumscribed scleroderma-like folliculitis decalvans: yet another face of a protean condition. Int J Trichology. 2018;10(4):175–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Soares Pizani N, dee Souza Teixeira M, Gavazzoni Dias MFR, Batsita Vasques W, Pantaleao L. Folliculitis decalvans mimicking frontal fibrosing alopecia. J Cosmo Triol. 2018;4:1.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Lobato-Berezo A, González-Farré M, Pujol RM. Pustular frontal fibrosing alopecia: a new variant within the folliculitis decalvans and lichen planopilaris phenotypic spectrum? Br J Dermatol. 2022;186(5):905–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Pujol RM, García-Patos V, Ravella-Mateu A, Casanova JM, de Moragas JM. Tufted hair folliculitis: a specific disease? Br J Dermatol. 1994;130:259–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Fernandes JC, Correia TM, Azevedo F, Mesquita-Guimarães J. Tufted hair folliculitis after scalp injury. Cutis. 2001;67:243–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Harries MJ, Meyer K, Chaudhry I, E Kloepper J, Poblet E, Griffiths CE, et al. Lichen planopilaris is characterized by immune privilege collapse of the hair follicle’s epithelial stem cell niche. J Pathol 2013;231:236–47.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Degos R, Rabut R, Duperrat B, Leclercq R. Pseudopeladic state; comments on one hundred cases of circumscribed cicatricial alopecia, apparently primary, of pseudopelade type. Ann Dermatol Syphiligr (Paris). 1954;81:5–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Shitara A, Igareshi R, Morohashi M. Folliculitis decalvans and cellular immunity—two brothers with oral candidiasis. Jap J Dermatol. 1974;28:133.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Frazer NG, Grant PW. Folliculitis decalvans and hypocomplementemia. Br J Dermatol. 1982;107(Suppl 22):88.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Wheeland RG, Thurmond RD, Gilmore WA, Blackstock R. Chronic blepharitis and pyoderma of the scalp: an immune deficiency state in a father and son with hypercalcemia and decreased intracellular killing. Pediatr Dermatol. 1983;1:134–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Trüeb RM, Tsambaos D, Spycher MA, Müller J, Burg G. Scarring folliculitis in the ectrodactyly-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting syndrome. Histologic, scanning electron-microscopic and biophysical studies of hair. Dermatology. 1997;194:191–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Otberg N, Wu WY, Kang H, Martinka M, Alzolibani AA, Restrepo I, et al. Folliculitis decalvans developing 20 years after hair restoration surgery in punch grafts: case report. Dermatol Surg. 2009;35:1852–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Colli P, Fellas A, Trüeb RM. Staphylococcus lugdunensis and Trichophyton tonsurans infection in synthetic hair implants. Int J Trichology. 2017;9:82–6.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Schwartz JR, Henry JP, Kerr KM, Flagler MJ, Page SH, Redman-Furey N, et al. Incubatory environment of the scalp impacts pre-emergent hair to affect post-emergent hair cuticle integrity. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;17:105–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Chiarini C, Torchia D, Bianchi B, Volpi W, Caproni M, Fabbri P, et al. Immunopathogenesis of folliculitis decalvans: clues in early lesions. Am J Clin Pathol. 2008;130:526–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Pereira LA, Teixeira M, Andrade J, Rochael M, Reis Gavazzoni-Dias MF. An overlap of secondary cutis verticis gyrata, folliculitis decalvans, folliculitis keloidalis nuchae and the use of dreadlocks: The role of inflammation due to traction. Skin Appendage Disord. 2016;2:130–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Matard B, Meylheuc T, Briandet R, Casin I, Assouly P, Cavelier-balloy B, Reygagne P. First evidence of bacterial biofilms in the anaerobe part of scalp hair follicles: a pilot comparative study in folliculitis decalvans. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2013;27(7):853–60.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Trüeb RM, Pericin M, Hafner J, Burg G. Tufted hair folliculitis [Article in German]. Hautarzt. 1997;48(4):266–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Meesters AA, Van der Veen JP, Wolkerstorfer A. Long-term remission of folliculitis decalvans after treatment with the long-pulsed Nd:YAG laser. J Dermatolog Treat. 2014;25(2):167–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Paquet P, Piérard GE. Dapsone treatment of folliculitis decalvans. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 2004;131(2):195–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Zhanel GG, Del Rosso JQ. Activity of dapsone versus community and hospital pathogens from the CANWARD study. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2016;9(3):42–7.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Booth SA, Moody CE, Dahl MV, Herron MJ, Nelson RD. Dapsone suppresses integrin-mediated neutrophil adherence function. J Invest Dermatol. 1992;98(2):135–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Suda T, Suzuki Y, Matsui T, Inoue T, Niide O, Yoshimaru T, Suzuki H, Ra C, Ochiai T. Dapsone suppresses human neutrophil superoxide production and elastase release in a calcium-dependent manner. Br J Dermatol. 2005;152(5):887–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Melián-Olivera A, Burgos-Blasco P, Selda-Enríquez G, Suárez-Valle A, Miguel-Gómez L, Vañó-Galván S, Saceda-Corralo D. Topical dapsone for folliculitis decalvans: a retrospective cohort study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021;S0190-9622(21):02073-9.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Heneghan C, Goldacre B, Mahtani KR. Why clinical trial outcomes fail to translate into benefits for patient. Trials. 2017;18:122.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Yang L, Chen J, Tong X, Gao L, Ding S, Guo A. Photodynamic therapy should be considered for the treatment of folliculitis decalvans. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2021;35:102356.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Aksoy B, Hapa A, Mutlu E. Isotretinoin treatment for folliculitis decalvans: a retrospective case-series study. Int J Dermatol. 2018;57(2):250–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Tietze JK, Heppt MV, von Preußen A, Wolf U, Ruzicka T, Wolff H, Sattler EC. Oral isotretinoin as the most effective treatment in folliculitis decalvans: a retrospective comparison of different treatment regimens in 28 patients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015;29(9):1816–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Samrao A, Mirmirani P. Gram-negative infections in patients with folliculitis decalvans: a subset of patients requiring alternative treatment. Dermatol Online J. 2020;26(2):13030/qt6nw2h5rh.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Leyden JJ, James WD. Staphylococcus aureus infection as a complication of isotretinoin therapy. Arch Dermatol. 1987;123(5):606–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Shireen F, Sudhakar A. A case of isotretinoin therapy-refractory folliculitis decalvans treated successfully with biosimilar adalimumab (exemptia). Int J Trichology. 2018;10(5):240–1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Alhameedy MM, Alsantali AM. Therapy-recalcitrant folliculitis decalvans controlled successfully with adalimumab. Int J Trichology. 2019;11(6):241–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Macleod JM. Alopecia following severe impetigo of the scalp in a girl, aged 6. Proc R Soc Med. 1914;7(Dermatol Sect):111 and scarring [Graham-Little E. Cicatricial alopecia following impetigo of scalp]. Proc R Soc Med. 1932;25(12):1742.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Darmstadt GL, Osendarp SJ, Ahmed S, Feldman C, Van Raaij JM, Baqui AH, Hautvast JG, Fuchs GJ. Effect of antenatal zinc supplementation on impetigo in infants in Bangladesh. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(4):407–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Diaz LA, Prisayanh P, Qaqish B, Temple BR, Aoki V, Hans-Filho G, Rivitti EA, Friedman H, Karetnick M, Herbert SM, Valenzuela JG, Cooperative Group of Fogo Selvagem Research. A lutzomyia longipalpis salivary protein induces cross-reactive antibodies to pemphigus autoantigen desmoglein 1. J Invest Dermatol. 2020;140(12):2332–42.e10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Masiuk H, Kopron K, Grumann D, Goerke C, Kolata J, Jursa-Kulesza J, Giedrys-Kalemba S, Bröker BM, Holtfreter S. Association of recurrent furunculosis with Panton-Valentine leukocidin and the genetic background of Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48(5):1527–35.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Ibrahim AE, Barikian A, Janom H, Kaddoura I. Numerous recurrent trichilemmal cysts of the scalp: differential diagnosis and surgical management. J Craniofac Surg. 2012;23(2):e164–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Minegishi Y. Hyper-IgE syndrome, 2021 update. Allergol Int. 2021;70(4):407–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Ibler KS, Kromann CB. Recurrent furunculosis—challenges and management: a review. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol. 2014;18(7):59–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Reagan DR, Doebbeling BN, Pfaller MA, Sheetz CT, Houston AK, Hollis RJ, Wenzel RP. Elimination of coincident Staphylococcus aureus nasal and hand carriage with intranasal application of mupirocin calcium ointment. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114(2):101–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Wheat LJ, Kohler RB, Luft FC, White A. Long-term studies of the effect of rifampin on nasal carriage of coagulase-positive staphylococci. Rev Infect Dis. 1983;5(Suppl 3):S459–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Darouiche R, Wright C, Hamill R, Koza M, Lewis D, Markowski J. Eradication of colonization by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by using oral minocycline-rifampin and topical mupirocin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991;35(8):1612–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Hirabayashi M, Takedomi H, Ando Y, Omura K. Neck carbuncle associated with methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. BMJ Case Rep. 2018;2018:bcr2018226935.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Patel N, Rosenbaum AJ. Soft-tissue infections: an approach to diagnosis and management. J Symptoms Signs. 2014. academia.edu.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Sauter M, Stoll W, Fricker HS, Wintsch K. Fetal scalp phlegmon with septicemia and meningitis caused by group A hemolytic streptococcus after internal fetal monitoring [article in German]. Gynakol Rundsch. 1980;20(Suppl 1):106–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Fan HC, Hua YM, Juan CJ, Fang YM, Cheng SN, Wang CC. Infected cephalohematoma associated with sepsis and scalp cellulitis: a case report. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2002;35(2):125–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Lowenbraum S, Young V, Kenton D, Serpick AA. Infection from intravenous “scalp-vein” needles in a susceptible population. JAMA. 1970;212(3):451–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Wolfe CM, Hatfield K, Cognetta AB Jr. Cellulitis as a postprocedural complication of topical 5-aminolevulinic acid photodynamic therapy in the treatment of actinic keratosis. J Drugs Dermatol. 2007;6(5):544–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Al-Umran S, Abdulfattah A, Alabbas F, Al-Jehani H. Camel bite associated with depressed skull fracture with rapidly spreading subgaleal cellulitis. Case Rep Infect Dis. 2020;2020(23):8393059.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Moore JR, Gerrie J, Elliott H. Massive cellulitis of the scalp in persons with diabetes. Arch Surg. 1950;60(5):897–905.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Sokol RJ, Bowden RA. An erysipelas-like scalp cellulitis due to haemophilus influenzae type b. J Pediatr. 1980;96(1):60–1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Phoenix G, Das S, Joshi M. Diagnosis and management of cellulitis. BMJ Clin Res. 2012;345:e4955.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Vary JC, O’Connor KM. Common dermatologic conditions. Med Clin North Am. 2014;98(3):445–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Dryden M. Pathophysiology and burden of infection in patients with diabetes mellitus and peripheral vascular disease: focus on skin and soft-tissue infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21:S27–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Navarini AA, Trüeb RM. 3 cases of dissecting cellulitis of the scalp treated with adalimumab: control of inflammation within residual structural disease. Arch Dermatol. 2010;146(5):517–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Iwata T, Hashimoto T, Niimura M. A pseudocyst with inflammatory granulation tissue on scalp—pseudocyst of scalp. Jpn J Clin Dermatol. 1992;46:9–16.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Chevallier J. Abcès non infectieux et alopéciques du curi chevelu: nouvelle entity. Nouv Dermatol. 1998;12:181.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Tsuruta D, Hayashi A, Kobayashi H, Nakagawa K, Furukawa M, Ishii M. Pseudocyst of the scalp. Dermatology. 2005;210(4):333–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Abdennader S, Reygagne P. Alopecic and aseptic nodules of the scalp. Dermatology. 2009;218(1):86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Abdennader S, Vignon-Pennamen MD, Hatchuel J, Reygagne P. Alopecic and aseptic nodules of the scalp (pseudocyst of the scalp): a prospective clinicopathological study of 15 cases. Dermatology. 2011;222(1):31–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Seol JE, Park IH, Kim DH, et al. Alopecic and aseptic nodules of the scalp/pseudocyst of the scalp: clinicopathological and therapeutic analyses in 11 Korean patients. Dermatology. 2016;232:165–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Garrido-Colmenero C, Arias-Santiago S, Aneiros Fernández J, García-Lora E. Trichoscopy and ultrasonography features of aseptic and alopecic nodules of the scalp. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2016;30:507–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Bourezane Y, Bourezane H. Two new trichoscopic signs in alopecic and aseptic nodules of the scalp: “Eastern pancake sign” and comedo-like structures [Article in French]. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 2014;141(12):750–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Bellinato F, Maurelli M, Colato C, Gisondi P, Girolomoni G. Alopecic and aseptic nodules of the scalp: a new case with a systematic review of the literature. Clin Case Rep. 2021;9(6):e04153.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Melo DF, Slaibi EB, Siqueira TMFM, Tortelly VD. Trichoscopy findings in dissecting cellulitis. An Bras Dermatol. 2019;94(5):608–11.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Brănişteanu DE, Molodoi A, Ciobanu D, Bădescu A, Stoica LE, Brănişteanu D, Tolea I. The importance of histopathologic aspects in the diagnosis of dissecting cellulitis of the scalp. Rom J Morphol Embryol. 2009;50(4):719–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Melo DF, Trüeb RM, Dutra H, Lima MMDA, Machado CJ, Dias MFRG. Low-dose isotretinoin as a therapeutic option for dissecting cellulitis. Dermatol Ther. 2020;33(6):e14273.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Malki L, Sarig O, Romano MT, Méchin MC, Peled A, Pavlovsky M, Warshauer E, Samuelov L, Uwakwe L, Briskin V, Mohamad J, Gat A, Isakov O, Rabinowitz T, Shomron N, Adir N, Simon M, McMichael A, Dlova NC, Betz RC, Sprecher E. Variant PADI3 in central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(9):833–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Weiner EJ, McIntosh MS, Joseph MM, Maraqa N, Davis PG. Neonatal scalp abscess: is it a benign disease? J Emerg Med. 2011;40(5):e97–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Baliga S, Shenoy S, Prashanth HV, Dominic SR. Scalp abscess due to Salmonella typhimurium—a case report. J Indian Med Assoc. 2011;109(2):118–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Nugent NF, Murphy M, Kelly J. Scalp abscess—a cautionary tale. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2010;63(8):e619–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Collet S, Grulois V, Eloy P, Rombaux P, Bertrand B. A Pott’s puffy tumour as a late complication of a frontal sinus reconstruction: case report and literature review. Rhinology. 2009;47(4):470–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Parida PK, Surianarayanan G, Ganeshan S, Saxena SK. Pott’s puffy tumor in pediatric age group: a retrospective study. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2012;76(9):1274–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Kombogiorgas D, Solanki GA. The Pott puffy tumor revisited: neurosurgical implications of this unforgotten entity. Case report and review of the literature. J Neurosurg. 2006;105(2 Suppl):143–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Nabri M, Alharbi M, Al-Sayyid A, Alabdrabalrasol K, Hassan K, Al-Jehani H. Subgaleal abscess: a rare sequel of an infected scalp sebaceous cyst. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2020;76:30–2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Razzouk A, Collins N, Zirkle T. Chronic extensive necrotizing abscess of the scalp. Ann Plast Surg. 1988;20(2):124–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Stamm WE, Kolff CA, Dones EM, Javariz R, Anderson RL, Farmer JJ III, de Quinones HR. A nursery outbreak caused by Serratia marcescens—scalp-vein needles as a portal of entry. J Pediatr. 1976;89(1):96–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Kadry R, Hamadah I, Al-Issa A, Field L, Alrabiah F. Multifocal scalp abscess with subcutaneous fat necrosis and scarring alopecia as a complication of scalp mesotherapy. J Drugs Dermatol. 2008;7(1):72–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Liu H, Li Z, Yang L, Yang X, Zhang Y, Chen J. A 9-day-old neonate with giant scalp abscess: a case report. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(48):e17830.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Winkel CA, Snyder DL, Schlaerth JB. Scalp abscess: a complication of the spiral fetal electrode. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1976;126(6):720–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Plavidal FJ, Werch A. Fetal scalp abscess secondary to intrauterine monitoring. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1976;125(1):65–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Okada DM, Chow AW, Bruce VT. Neonatal scalp abscess and fetal monitoring: factors associated with infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977;129(2):185–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Cordero L, Anderson CW, Zuspan FP. Scalp abscess: a benign and infrequent complication of fetal monitoring. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;146(2):126–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Brook I, Rodriguez WJ, Controni G, Gold B. Gonococcal scalp abscess in a newborn. South Med J. 1980;73(3):396–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. [Abscesses of the scalp caused by retention of a fragment of an electrode]. Ugeskr Laeger. 1978;140(40):2445–6.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Kumar MR. Chromobacterium violaceum: a rare bacterium isolated from a wound over the scalp. Int J Appl Basic Med Res. 2012;2(1):70–2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Mazlim MB, Muthupalaniappen L. Cat’s curse: a case of misdiagnosed kerion. Malays Fam Physician. 2012;7(2-3):35–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  109. Bovino P, Cole J, Scheatzle M. Ultrasound visualization of atypical abscess ultimately containing bot fly larva. J Emerg Med. 2016;51(2):144–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Aui-Aree N, Tungsinmunkong K, Hirunpat S, Ratanasukon M, Wangsupadilok B. A variety of atypical manifestations in giant cell arteritis. J Med Assoc Thai. 2010;93(5):629–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Thavara BD, Rajagopalawarrier B, Ramaswamy JC, Kidangan GS. Central nervous system inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor presenting as a scalp abscess. Neurol India. 2020;68(3):703–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Hakkarainen TW, Kopari NM, Pham TN, Evans HL. Necrotizing soft tissue infections: review and current concepts in treatment, systems of care, and outcomes. Curr Probl Surg. 2014;51(8):344–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  113. Hsieh WS, Yang PH, Chao HC, Lai JY. Neonatal necrotizing fasciitis: a report of three cases and review of the literature. Pediatrics. 1999;103(4):e53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Paz Maya S, Dualde Beltrán D, Lemercier P, Leiva-Salinas C. Necrotizing fasciitis: an urgent diagnosis. Skeletal Radiol. 2014;43(5):577–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Willett K, Whiteway J. Gas gangrene of the scalp: a case report. Injury. 1987;18(3):215–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Role of theta toxin, a sulfhydryl-activated cytolysin, in the pathogenesis of clostridial gas gangrene. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;16(Suppl 4):S195–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Berger RS, Seifert MR. Whirlpool folliculitis: a review of its cause, treatment, and prevention. Cutis. 1990;45(2):97–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Fowler JF Jr, Stege GC III. Hot tub (Pseudomonas) folliculitis. J Ky Med Assoc. 1990;88(2):66–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Trüeb RM, Elsner P, Burg G. Pseudomonas aeruginosa folliculitis after epilation [German]. Hautarzt. 1993;44(2):103–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. De La Cuadra J, Gil-Mateo P, Llucián R. Pseudomonas aeruginosa folliculitis after depilation [French]. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 1996;123(4):268–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Bottone EJ, Perez AA II. Pseudomonas aeruginosa folliculitis acquired through use of a contaminated loofah sponge: an unrecognized potential public health problem. J Clin Microbiol. 1993;31(3):480–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Teraki Y, Nakamura K. Rubbing skin with nylon towels as a major cause of pseudomonas folliculitis in a Japanese population. J Dermatol. 2015;42(1):81–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Trüeb RM, Gloor M, Wüthrich B. Recurrent Pseudomonas folliculitis. Pediatr Dermatol. 1994;11(1):35–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Schlech WF III, Simonsen N, Sumarah R, Martin RS. Nosocomial outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa folliculitis associated with a physiotherapy pool. CMAJ. 1986;134(8):909–13.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  125. Mena KD, Gerba CP. Risk assessment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in water. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 2009;201:71–115.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Solomon SL. Host factors in whirlpool-associated Pseudomonas aeruginosa skin disease. Infect Control. 1985;6:402–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Marples RR. Sex, constancy, and skin bacteria. Arch Dermatol Res. 1982;272:317–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Green JJ. Localized whirlpool folliculitis in a football player. Cutis. 2000;65(6):359–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Salmen P, Dwyer DM, Vorse H, Kruse W. Whirlpool-associated Pseudomonas aeruginosa urinary tract infections. JAMA. 1983;250(15):2025–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Jacobson JA. Pool-associated Pseudomonas aeruginosa dermatitis and other bathing-associated infections. Infect Control. 1985;6:398–401.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Kanj SS, Kanafani ZA. Current concepts in antimicrobial therapy against resistant gram-negative organisms: extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae, carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mayo Clin Proc. 2011;86:250–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  132. Lutz JK, Lee J. Prevalence and antimicrobial-resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in swimming pools and hot tubs. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2011;8:554–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Neubert U, Jansen T, Plewig G. Bacteriologic and immunologic aspects of gram-negative folliculitis: a study of 46 patients. Int J Dermatol. 1999;38:270–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Lehrhoff S, Yost J, Robinson M, Patel R, Sanchez M. Serratia marcescens folliculitis and concomitant acne vulgaris. Dermatol Online J. 2012;18:19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Garcia-Bustinduy M, Lecuona M, Guimera F, et al. Citrobacter koseri in scalp folliculitis. Cutis. 2002;69:393–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Obara Y, Nagai T, Mori M, Ohmine K, Toshima M, Komatsu N, Ozawa K. Pseudomonas sepsis with ecthyma gangrenosum in an acute myeloid leukemia patient [Japanese]. Kinsho Ketsueki. 2004;45(10):1138–40.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Shah M, Crane JS. Ecthyma gangrenosum. 2021. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Ferguson L, Chong H, Singh M. Ecthyma gangrenosum without bacteraemia: evidence in favour of a broader definition. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2017;42(3):324–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Martínez-Longoria CA, Rosales-Solis GM, Ocampo-Garza J, Guerrero-González GA, Ocampo-Candiani J. Ecthyma gangrenosum: a report of eight cases. An Bras Dermatol. 2017;92(5):698–700.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Reich HL. Nonpseudomonal ecthyma gangrenosum. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;50(5):114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Vaiman M, Lazarovitch T, Heller L, Lotan G. Ecthyma gangrenosum and ecthyma-like lesions: review article. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2015;34(4):633–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. El Baze P, Thyss A, Caldani C, Juhlin L, Schneider M, Ortonne JP. Pseudomonas aeruginosa O-11 folliculitis. Development into ecthyma gangrenosum in immunosuppressed patients. Arch Dermatol. 1985;121:873.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Collins MD. Corynebacterium caspium sp. nov., from a Caspian seal (Phoca caspica). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2004;54(3):925–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. León C, Ariza J. Guías para el tratamiento de las infecciones relacionadas con catéteres intravasculares de corta permanencia en adultos: Conferencia de consenso SEIMC-SEMICYUC [Guidelines for the treatment of infections related to short-stay intravascular catheters in adults: consensus conference SEIMC-SEMICYUC]. Enf Infecc Microbiol Clín (in Spanish). 2004;22(2):92–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Hartmann AA. The influence of various factors on the human resident skin flora. Semin Dermatol. 1990;9:305–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Shelley WB, Shelley ED. Coexistent erythrasma, trichomycosis axillaris, and pitted keratolysis: an overlooked corynebacterial triad? J Am Acad Dermatol. 1982;7:752–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Paxton FV. On a disease condition of the hairs of the axilla, probably of parasitic origin. J Cutan Med. 1869;3:133.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Crissey JT, Rebell GC, Laskas JJ. Studies on the causative organism of trichomycosis axillaris. J Invest Dermatol. 1952;19:189–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Freeman RG, McBride ME, Knox JM. Pathogenesis of trichomycosis axillaris. Arch Dermatol. 1969;100:90–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Bargman H. Trichomycosis of the scrotal hair. Arch Dermatol. 1984;120:299.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. De Almeida H Jr, Götze F, Heckler G, Marques e Silva R. Trichomycosis capitis: first report of this localization and ultrastructural aspects. Eur J Dermatol. 2011;21:823–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Takcı Z. Ayşe Serap Karadağ An unusual presentation: trichomycosis (trichobacteriosis) capitis in an infant. Turk J Pediatr. 2014;56(6):677–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Bonifaz A, Ramírez-Ricarte I, Rodríguez-Leviz A, Hernández MA, Mena C, Valencia A. Trichomycosis (trichobacteriosis) capitis in an infant: microbiological, dermoscopic and ultrastructural features [Spanish]. Rev Chil Pediatr. 2017;88(2):258–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Rho NK, Kim BJ. A corynebacterial triad: prevalence of erythrasma and trichomycosis axillaris in soldiers with pitted keratolysis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;58:S57–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Shelley WB, Miller MA. Electron microscopy, histochemistry, and microbiology of bacterial adhesion in trichomycosis axillaris. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1984;10:1005–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Leftwich PT, Edgington MP, Chapman T. Transmission efficiency drives host–microbe associations. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 1934;2020(287):20200820.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Berg G, Rybakova D, Fischer D, Cernava T, et al. Microbiome definition re-visited: old concepts and new challenges. Microbiome. 2020;8(1):103.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  158. Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R. Are we really vastly outnumbered? Revisiting the ratio of bacterial to host cells in humans. Cell. 2016;164(3):337–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Matard B, Donay JL, Resche-Rigon M, Tristan A, Farhi D, Rousseau C, Mercier-Delarue S, Cavelier-Balloy B, Assouly P, Petit A, Bagot M, Reygagne P. Folliculitis decalvans is characterized by a persistent, abnormal subepidermal microbiota. Exp Dermatol. 2020;29(3):295–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Polak-Witka K, Rudnicka L, Blume-Peytavi U, Vogt A. The role of the microbiome in scalp hair follicle biology and disease. Exp Dermatol. 2020;29(3):286–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Saxena R, Mittal P, Clavaud C, Dhakan DB, Hegde P, Veeranagaiah MM, Saha S, Souverain L, Roy N, Breton L, Misra N, Sharma VK. Comparison of healthy and dandruff scalp microbiome reveals the role of commensals in scalp health. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2018;8:346.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  162. Kaźmierczak AK, Szarapińska-Kwaszewska JK, Szewczyk EM. Opportunistic coryneform organisms-residents of human skin. Pol J Microbiol. 2005;54:27–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Maibach HI. Scalp pustules due to Corynebacterium acnes. Arch Dermatol. 1967;96(4):453–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Clavaud C, Jourdain R, Bar-Hen A, Tichit M, Bouchier C, Pouradier F, El Rawadi C, Guillot J, Ménard-Szczebara F, Breton L, Latgé J-P, Mouyna I. Dandruff is associated with disequilibrium in the proportion of the major bacterial and fungal populations colonizing the scalp. PLoS One. 2013;8(3):e58203.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  165. Kim J. Review of the innate immune response in acne vulgaris: activation of Toll-like receptor 2 in acne triggers inflammatory cytokine responses. Dermatology. 2005;211(3):193–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Tzellos T, Zampeli V, Makrantonaki E, Zouboulis CC. Treating acne with antibiotic-resistant bacterial colonization. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2011;12(8):1233–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Libenson L, Hadley FP, Mcilroy AP, Wetzel VM, Mellon RR. Antibacterial effect of elemental sulfur. J Infect Dis. 1953;93(1):28–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Fu Y, Zu Y, Chen L, Efferth T, Liang H, Liu Z, Liu W. Investigation of antibacterial activity of rosemary essential oil against Propionibacterium acnes with atomic force microscopy. Planta Med. 2007;73(12):1275–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Raman A, Weir U, Bloomfield SF. Antimicrobial effects of tea-tree oil and its major components on Staphylococcus aureus, Staph. epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes. Lett Appl Microbiol. 1995;21(4):242–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Fu Y, Chen L, Zu Y, Liu Z, Liu X, Liu Y, et al. The antibacterial activity of clove essential oil against Propionibacterium acnes and its mechanism of action. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(1):86–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Baik JS, Kim SS, Lee JA, Oh TH, Kim JY, Lee NH, Hyun CG. Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils extracted from Korean endemic citrus species. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2008;18(1):74–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Albietz JM, Lenton LM. Effect of antibacterial honey on the ocular flora in tear deficiency and Meibomian gland disease. Cornea. 2006;25(9):1012–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Wan MT, Lin JY. Current evidence and applications of photodynamic therapy in dermatology. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol. 2014;7:145–63.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  174. Cornelius CE III, Ludwig GD. Red fluorescence of comedones: production of porphyrins by Corynebacterium acnes. J Invest Dermatol. 1967;49(4):368–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Piérard-Franchimont C. Uhoda I.,·Saint-Léger D., Piérard G.E. Androgenic alopecia and stress-induced premature senescence by cumulative ultraviolet light exposure Exog Dermatol 2002;1:203–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Johnsson A, Kjeldstad B, Melo TB. Fluorescence from pilosebaceous follicles. Arch Dermatol Res. 1987;279:190–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Pierard GE, Pierard-Franchimont C, Nikkels-Tassoudji N, et al. Improvement in the inflammatory aspect of androgenetic alopecia. A pilot study with an antimicrobial lotion. J Dermatol Treat. 1996;7:153–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  178. Borde A, Åstrand A. Alopecia areata and the gut-the link opens up for novel therapeutic interventions. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2018;22(6):503–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Moreno-Arrones OM, Serrano-Villar S, Perez-Brocal V, Saceda-Corralo D, Morales-Raya C, Rodrigues-Barata R, Moya A, Jaen-Olasolo P, Vano-Galvan S. Analysis of the gut microbiota in alopecia areata: identification of bacterial biomarkers. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2020;34(2):400–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Lu J, Zhang P, Hu R, Qi S, Zhao Y, Miao Y, Han Y, Zhou L, Yang Q. Gut microbiota characterization in Chinese patients with alopecia areata. J Dermatol Sci. 2021;102(2):109–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Hersle K, Mobacken H, Möller A. Chronic non-scarring folliculitis of the scalp. Acta Derm Venereol. 1979;59(3):249–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Taïeb A, Bassan-Andrieu L, Maleville J. Eosinophilic pustulosis of the scalp in childhood. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1992;27(1):55–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Pye RJ, Peachey RD, Burton JL. Erosive pustular dermatosis of the scalp. Br J Dermatol. 1979;100(5):559–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Toda N, Fujimoto N, Kato T, Fujii N, Nakanishi G, Nagao T, Tanaka T. Erosive pustular dermatosis of the scalp-like eruption due to gefitinib: case report and review of the literature of alopecia associated with EGFR inhibitors. Dermatology. 2012;225(1):18–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Laffitte E, Kaya G, Piguet V, Saurat J-H. Erosive pustular dermatosis of the scalp: treatment with topical tacrolimus. Arch Dermatol. 2003;139(6):712–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Byrd AL, Belkaid Y, Segre JA. The human skin microbiome. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2018;16:143–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Ober WB. Ghon but not forgotten: Anton Ghon and his complex. Pathol Annu. 1983;18(Pt 2):79–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. O’Leary PA, Harrison MW. Inoculation tuberculosis. Arch Derm Syphilol. 1941;44(3):371–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  189. Curvo-Semedo L, Teixeira L, Caseiro-Alves F. Tuberculosis of the chest. Eur J Radiol. 2005;55(2):158–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Horwich M, Wadsworth TG. Post-traumatic inoculation tuberculosis; with a report of a case of tuberculous infection in a scalp wound. Br Med J. 1955;2(4947):1060–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  191. Strauss DC. Tuberculosis of flat bones of the vault of the skull. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1933;57:384–98.

    Google Scholar 

  192. Meng CM, Wu YK. Tuberculosis of the flat bones of the vault of skull. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1942;24:341–53.

    Google Scholar 

  193. Biniwale SN, Rajshekhar V. Tuberculous osteomyelitis of bone flap following craniotomy for a glioma [letter]. Neurol India. 2000;48:91–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Jadhav RN, Palande DA. Calvarial tuberculosis. Neurosurgery. 1999;45:1345–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Tata HR. Tuberculous osteomyelitis of the skull. Indian J Tuberc. 1978;25:208–9.

    Google Scholar 

  196. Miles J, Hughes B. Tuberculous osteitis of the skull. Br J Surg. 1970;57:673–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Raut AA, Nagar AM, Muzumdar D, Chawla AJ, Narlawar RS, Fattepurkar S, Bhatgadde VL. Imaging features of calvarial tuberculosis: a study of 42 cases. JNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2004;25(3):409–14.

    Google Scholar 

  198. Motswaledi MH, Doman C. Lupus vulgaris with squamous cell carcinoma. Cutan Pathol. 2007;34(12):939–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  199. Krasovec M, Widmer M, Gilliet F, Burg G. Lupus vulgaris with scar-forming alopecia in florid pulmonary tuberculosis [article in German]. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax. 1993;82(33):893–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Zapatero Gaviria A, Ibarburen González-Arenas C, López Gutiérrez C, Vigil Medina L, Barros Aguado C, Fernández López P. Lupus vulgaris as initial manifestation of asymptomatic pulmonary tuberculosis [article in Spanish]. An Med Interna. 1990;7(12):635–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Hassunuma Carneiro B, Gama Palone A, Andrade Celeira Zanlorenzi C, Bochnia Küster JG, Abreu Ducroquet M, de Barros JA. Cutaneous tuberculosis on the scalp: a case report. Infez Med. 2021;29(2):263–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Alam MA, Ahmed MN, Khan AH, Arafat SM. Metastatic tuberculous abscess: a rare manifestation of cutaneous tuberculosis. IDCases. 2021;26:e01257.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  203. Machan A, Hanafi T, Hjira N, Boui M. Tuberculous gummas: epidemiological, clinical, bacteriological, immunological, and therapeutic features. Int J Mycobacteriol. 2018;7(3):203–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Tappeiner G, Wolff K. Tuberculosis and other mycobacterial infections. In: Freedberg I, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, Austen KF, Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Fitzpatrick TH, editors. Fitzpatrick’s dermatology in general medicine, vol. II. 5th ed. McGraw-Hill; 1999. p. 2282.

    Google Scholar 

  205. Niemeyer-Corbellini JP, Spinatto D, Boechat N, Carvalho AC, Pineiro-Maceira J, Azulay DR. Papulonecrotic tuberculid on the scalp. Int J Dermatol. 2008;47(10):1028–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Lawn SD, Zumla AI. Tuberculosis. Lancet. 2011;378(9785):57–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Sharma PK, Gautam RK, Bhardwaj M, Kar HK. Isonicotinic acid hydrazide induced anagen effluvium and associated lichenoid eruption. J Dermatol. 2001;28(12):737–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Villanueva A, Calderon RV, Vargas BA, et al. Report on an outbreak of postinjection abscesses due to Mycobacterium abscessus, including management with surgery and clarithromycin therapy and comparison of strains by random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24(6):1147–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Barisani A, Savoia F, Leuzzi M, Patrizi A, Vaccari S. Successful treatment of atypical mycobacteriosis of the scalp with photodynamic therapy. Dermatol Ther. 2020;33(3):e13338.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. James DG, Sharma OP. From Hutchinson to now: a historical glimpse. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2002;8(5):416–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Baughman RP, Culver DA, Judson MA. A concise review of pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183(5):573–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Saidha S, Sotirchos ES, Eckstein C. Etiology of sarcoidosis: does infection play a role? Yale J Biol Med. 2012;85(1):133–41.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  213. Bargagli E, Olivieri C, Rottoli P. Cytokine modulators in the treatment of sarcoidosis. Rheumatol Int. 2011;31(12):1539–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Knight L, Ngwanya M. Sarcoidosis of the scalp: the largest single-institutional case series. Int J Dermatol. 2019;58(8):e149–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Dan L, Relic J. Sarcoidosis presenting as non-scarring non-scalp alopecia. Australas J Dermatol. 2016;57(3):e112–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Torres F, Tosti A, Misciali C, Lorenzi S. Trichoscopy as a clue to the diagnosis of scalp sarcoidosis. Int J Dermatol. 2011;50(3):358–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Thaipisuttikul Y, Kateruttanakul P. Sarcoidosis mimics lepromatous leprosy: a case report. Med Assoc Thai. 2007;90(1):171–4.

    Google Scholar 

  218. Cheraghi N, Robinson A, O'Donnell P, Belazarian L. Scalp sarcoidosis: a sign of systemic sarcoidosis. Dermatol Online J. 2014;20(3):doj_21767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Nguyen CTH, Kambe N, Kishimoto I, et al. Serum soluble interleukin-2 receptor level is more sensitive than angiotensin-converting enzyme or lysozyme for diagnosis of sarcoidosis and may be a marker of multiple organ involvement. J Dermatol. 2017;44(7):789–97.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Morell F, Levy G, Orriols R, Ferrer J, De Gracia J, Sampol G. Delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity tests and lymphopenia as activity markers in sarcoidosis. Chest. 2002;121(4):1239–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Boda D, Cutoiu A, Bejenariu N, Caruntu C. Cutaneous sarcoidosis of the scalp unmasking systemic involvement: a case report. Exp Ther Med. 2021;22(6):1369.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  222. Huisman PM, van Royen EA. Skin uptake of Gallium 67 in cutaneous sarcoidosis. Acta Derm Venereol. 1985;65(3):243–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Dai C, Shih S, Ansari A, Kwak Y, Sami N. Biologic therapy in the treatment of cutaneous sarcoidosis: a literature review. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2019;20(3):409–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Rosińska-Więckowicz A, Bowszyc-Dmochowska M. Granulomatous skin disease with a histological pattern of palisading granuloma—an atypical facial necrobiosis lipoidica or more? Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2017;34(6):618–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  225. Reid S, Ladizinski B, Lee K, et al. Update on necrobiosis lipoidica: a review of etiology, diagnosis and treatment options. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2013;69:783–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Sabuncuoğlu H, Oge K, Söylemezoğlu F, Sağlam A. Subcutaneous granuloma annulare of the scalp in childhood: a case report and review of the literature. Turk Neurosurg. 2007;17(1):19–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Forman L. Necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum of scalp. Proc R Soc Med. 1954;47(8):658–9.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  228. Yaşar Ş, Kaynak E, Güneş P, Göktay F, Aytekin S. Atypical localization of necrobiosis lipoidica: involvement of the face and scalp. Skin Appendage Disord. 2017;3(2):92–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  229. Bergler-Czop B, Brzezińska-Wcisło L, Rogala-Poborska I. Miescher’s granulomatosis (granulomatosis disciformis chronica et progressiva) in a non-diabetic patient—case report. Diagn Pathol. 2009;4:28.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  230. Sandeep Arora S, Malik A, Patil C, Balki A. Annular elastolytic giant cell granuloma: a report of 10 cases. Indian Dermatol Online J. 2015;6(Suppl 1):17–S20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  231. Gürsel Ürün Y, Ürün M, Genç Erdoğan E, Pişkin S. Multiple asymptomatic annular plaques on the scalp. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2020;45(2):222–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Fernandez-Flores A, Manjon JA. Repigmentation of gray hair in lesions of annular elastolytic giant cell granuloma. Cutis. 2015;96(1):E19–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Patel MR, Bassini L, Nashad R, Anselmo MT. Barber’s interdigital pilonidal sinus of the hand: a foreign body hair granuloma. J Hand Surg Am. 1990l;15(4):652–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Doytcheva K, Tan T, Guitart J, Gerami P, Yazdan P. Naked hair shafts as a marker of cicatricial alopecia. Am J Dermatopathol. 2018;40(7):498–501.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Uysal AC, Orbay H, Uraloglu M, et al. Rare occupational disease of hair dressers: interdigital pilonidal sinus. J Nippon Med Sch. 2007;74(5):364–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Rajashekar TS, Singh G, Naik LC. Immune zones in leprosy. Indian J Dermatol. 2009;54:206–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  237. Fleury RL, Tolentino MM, Opromolla OVA, Tonello C. Inapparent lepromatous leprosy in the scalp. Int J Lepr. 1973. p. 580, 19, 20.

    Google Scholar 

  238. Jaikumar J, Aschhoff M, Renuka G, Meyers WM. Involvement of scalp, axillae and groins in lepromatous leprosy. Indian J Lepr. 1992;64:541–4.

    Google Scholar 

  239. Bedi TR, Kumar B, Kaur S. Histopathologic study of clinically normal appearing skin in lepromatous leprosy. Lepr India. 1979;51(1):78–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Kaur S, Kumar B. Study of apparently uninvolved skin in leprosy as regards bacillary population at various sites. Lepr India. 1978;50(1):38–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Mistuda K. Atlas of leprosy. Okayama: Chotokai Foundation; 1952. p. 6.

    Google Scholar 

  242. Fraguela Rangel JV, Fernández Baquero G, Kraftchenco Beoto T, Hernández Angulo M. [Scalp alopecia in leprosy]. Rev Cubana Med Trop. 1977;29(1):23–31.

    Google Scholar 

  243. Fleury RN, Opromolla DVA, Tolentino MM, Tonello CJS. Hanseníase virchowiana do couro cabeludo. Hansen Int. 1976;1:25–32.

    Google Scholar 

  244. Abraham S, Ebenezer GJ, Jesudasan K. Diffuse alopecia of the scalp in borderline lepromatosus leprosy in an Indian patient. Lepr Rev. 1997;68:336–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Macedo RB, Santos T, Ramos PB, Takano DM, Leal VS. Leprosy on the scalp. An Bras Dermatol. 2016;91(5 suppl 1):69–71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  246. Shaw IN, Ebenezer G, Babu B, Rao GS. Borderline tuberculoid leprosy of the scalp. Lepr Rev. 2001;72(3):357–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Ghorpade A, Ramanan C, Manglani PR. Tuberculoid leprosy on hairy scalp. A case report. Lepr Rev. 1988;59:235–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Ghorpade A, Remanan C, Manlani PR. Tuberculoid leprosy involving hairy scalp. A case report. Ind J Dermatol Venereal Leprol. 1994;60:41–2.

    Google Scholar 

  249. Dharmendra RG. Borderline (Dimorphous group). In: Dharmendra, editor. Leprosy. 1st ed. Bombay: Kothari Medical Publishing House; 1978. p. 80, 24.

    Google Scholar 

  250. Petro TS. Borderline tuberculoid leprosy lesion on the scalp presenting with supra orbital neuritis. Indian J Lepr. 1998;70:319–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Malaviya GN, Girdhar BK, Husain S, Ramu G, Lavania RK, Desikan KV. Scalp lesions in a lepromatous leprosy patient-case report. Indian J Lepr. 1987;59:103–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Sharma S, Dayal S, Bansal C, et al. Borderline tuberculoid leprosy of the scalp mimicking alopecia areata-vitiligo overlap syndrome. A case report. Lepr Rev. 2019;90:444–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  253. Khong JJ, Casson RJ, Huilgol SC, Selva D. Madarosis. Surv Ophthalmol. 2006;51(6):550–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  254. Dana MR, Hochman MA, Viana MA, et al. Ocular manifestations of leprosy in a noninstitutionalized community in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:626–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Soshamma G, Suryawanshi N. Eye lesions in leprosy. Lepr Rev. 1989;60:33–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Barman KD, Madan A, Garg VK, Goel K, Khurana N. Unusual presentation of necrotic erythema nodosum leprosum on scalp: a case report. Indian J Lepr. 2015;87(1):23–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Mukhopadhyay AK. Involvement of scalp in leprosy. Indian J Lepr. 2005;77(1):47–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Cleve EA. Alopecia leprotica: its relationship to transmission of leprosy. J Am Med Assoc. 1953;152(7):573–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  259. Lara CB. Leprosy in infancy and childhood. Monthly Bull Bureau of Health, Manila PI. 1948;24:61–89.

    Google Scholar 

  260. Guerrero-Santos J, Casteñeda A, Fernandez JM. Correction of alopecia of eyebrows in leprous patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1973;52(2):183–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Bennhoff DF. Actinomycosis diagnostic and therapeutic considerations and review of 32 cases. Laryngoscope. 1984;94:1198–217.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Akhtar M, Zade MP, Shahane PL, Bangde AP, Soitkar SM. Scalp actinomycosis presenting as soft tissue tumour: a case report with literature review. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2015;16:99–101.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  263. Kalioras V, Thanos L, Mylona S, Pomoni M, Batakis N. Scalp actinomycosis mimicking soft tissue mass. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2006;35(2):117–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Rodrigues G, Carnelio S. Actinomycosis of the scalp or tuberculosis? A clinical conundrum! BMJ Case Rep. 2019;12(5):e230563.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  265. Tomb RR, Stephan F, Haddad A, Choucair J. Cutaneous granular bacteriosis, a rarely diagnosed infection of the head and the neck. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34(8):887–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Tzellos T, Zouboulis CC. Which hidradenitis suppurativa comorbidities should I take into account? Exp Dermatol. 2022;31(Suppl 1):29–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Zouboulis CC, Benhadou F, Byrd AS, Chandran NS, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Fabbrocini G, et al. What causes hidradenitis suppurativa?—15 years after. Exp Dermatol. 2020;29:1154–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  268. Jfri AH, O’Brien EA, Litvinov IV, Alavi A, Netchiporouk E. Hidradenitis suppurativa: comprehensive review of predisposing genetic mutations and changes. J Cutan Med Surg. 2019;23(5):519–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  269. Zouboulis CC, Desai N, Emtestam L, Hunger RE, Ioannides D, Juhász I, et al. European S1 guideline for the treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa/acne inversa. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015;29(4):619–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  270. Theut Riis P, Pedersen OB, Sigsgaard V, Erikstrup C, Paarup HM, Nielsen KR, et al. Prevalence of patients with self-reported hidradenitis suppurativa in a cohort of Danish blood donors: a cross-sectional study. Br J Dermatol. 2019;180(4):774–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Nguyen TV, Damiani G, Orenstein LAV, Hamzavi I, Jemec GB. Hidradenitis suppurativa: an update on epidemiology, phenotypes, diagnosis, pathogenesis, comorbidities and quality of life. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2021;35:50–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Von Der Werth JM, Williams HC, Raeburn JA. The clinical genetics of hidradenitis suppurativa revisited. Br J Dermatol. 2000;142(5):947–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Nomura T. Hidradenitis suppurativa as a potential subtype of autoinflammatory keratinization disease. Front Immunol. 2020;11:847.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  274. Lam SY, Radjabzadeh D, Eppinga H, Nossent YR, van der Zee HH, Kraaij R, Konstantinov SR, Fuhler SM, Prens EP, Thio HB, PeppelenboschBarth MP. A microbiome study to explore the gut-skin axis in hidradenitis suppurativa. J Dermatol Sci. 2021;101(3):218–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Zouboulis CC, Del Marmol V, Mrowietz U, Prens EP, Tzellos T, Jemec GBE. Hidradenitis suppurativa/acne inversa: criteria for diagnosis, severity assessment, classification and disease evaluation. Dermatology. 2015;231(2):184–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Jemec GBE. Clinical practice. Hidradenitis suppurativa. N Engl J Med. 2013;366(2):158–64 . nejm.org at MIT Libraries on August.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  277. Canoui-Poitrine F, Revuz JE, Wolkenstein P, Viallette C, Gabison G, Pouget F, et al. Clinical characteristics of a series of 302 French patients with hidradenitis suppurativa, with an analysis of factors associated with disease severity. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2009;61(1):51–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Harvey LM, Fortson JK. Hidradenitis suppurativa at an uncommon site: a review of its clinical features, diagnostic difficulties, and management. Cureus. 2021;13(10).

    Google Scholar 

  279. Capasso G, Fabbrocini G, Marasca C. Disfiguring hidradenitis suppurativa of the face. Ski Appendage Disord. 2022;8(1):70–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  280. Poli F, Wolkenstein P, Revuz J. Back and face involvement in hidradenitis suppurativa. Dermatology. 2010;221(2):137–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  281. Ring HC, Sigsgaard V, Thorsen J, Fuursted K, Fabricius S, Saunte DM, et al. The microbiome of tunnels in hidradenitis suppurativa patients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019;33(9):1775–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Jørgensen AHR, Thomsen SF, Karmisholt KE, Ring HC. Clinical, microbiological, immunological and imaging characteristics of tunnels and fistulas in hidradenitis suppurativa and Crohn’s disease, vol. 29. Exp Dermatol; 2020. p. 118–23.

    Google Scholar 

  283. Ring HC, Bay L, Nilsson M, Kallenbach K, Miller IM, Saunte DM, et al. Bacterial biofilm in chronic lesions of hidradenitis suppurativa. Br J Dermatol. 2017;176(4):993–1000.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Negus D, Ahn C, Huang W. An update on the pathogenesis of hidradenitis suppurativa: implications for therapy. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2018;14(4):275–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/1744666X.2018.1449647.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Frew JW. Hidradenitis suppurativa is an autoinflammatory keratinization disease: a review of the clinical, histologic, and molecular evidence. JAAD Int. 2020;1:62–72.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  286. Shukla R, Karagaiah P, Patil A, Farnbach K, Ortega-Loayza AG, Tzellos T, et al. Surgical treatment in hidradenitis suppurativa. J Clin Med. 2022;11(9):2311.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  287. Prignano F, Pescitelli L, Giani I, Dini V, Romanelli M. Tuscan consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019;33(S6):21–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Hurley HJ. Axillary hyperhidrosis, apocrine bromhidrosis, hidradenitis suppurativa, and familial benign pemphigus: surgical approach. In: Roenigk RK, Roenigk HH, editors. Dermatologic surgery. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1989. p. 729–39.

    Google Scholar 

  289. Hendricks AJ, Hsiao JL, Lowes MA, Shi VY. A comparison of international management guidelines for hidradenitis suppurativa. Dermatology. 2021;237(1):81–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Rosi E, Pescitelli L, Ricceri F, Di Cesare A, Novelli A, Pimpinelli N, et al. Clindamycin as unique antibiotic choice in hidradenitis suppurativa. Dermatol Ther. 2019;32(2):e12792.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. van Straalen KR, Schneider-Burrus S, Prens EP. Current and future treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa. Br J Dermatol. 2020;183(6):e178–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. Magalhães RF, Rivitti-Machado MC, Duarte GV, Souto R, Nunes DH, Chaves M, et al. Consensus on the treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa—Brazilian society of dermatology. An Bras Dermatol. 2019;94(2):7–19.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  293. van Straalen KR, Tzellos T, Guillem P, Benhadou F, Cuenca-Barrales C, Daxhelet M, Daoud M, Efthymiou O, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Jemec GBE, Katoulis AC, Koenig A, Lazaridou E, Marzano AV, Matusiak Ł, Molina-Leyva A, Moltrasio C, Pinter A, Potenza C, Romaní J, Saunte DM, Skroza N, Stergianou D, Szepietowski J, Trigoni A, Vilarrasa E, van der Zee HH. The efficacy and tolerability of tetracyclines and clindamycin plus rifampicin for the treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa: results of a prospective European cohort study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021;85(2):369–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. Sánchez Martínez EM, Murray G, Alfageme Roldán F, García Ruiz R, Tobin AM, Zouboulis CC. Adalimumab dose intensification in hidradenitis suppurativa: effectiveness and safety results of a multicentre study. Br J Dermatol. 2021;185:863–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Williams ST, Busby RC, DeMuth RJ, Nelson H. Perineal hidradenitis suppurativa: presentation of two unusual complications and a revie. Ann Plast Surg. 1991;26(5):456–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Moschella SL. Hidradenitis suppurativa. Complications resulting in death. JAMA. 1966;198(1):201–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ralph M. Trüeb .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Trüeb, R.M., Dutra Rezende, H., Gavazzoni Dias, M.F.R., Silva Polito, D., de Abreu Neves Salles, S. (2023). Bacterial Diseases. In: Trüeb, R.M., Dutra Rezende, H., Gavazzoni Dias, M.F.R. (eds) Hair in Infectious Disease. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30754-6_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30754-6_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-30753-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-30754-6

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics