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Special Regulations

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The Designation of Marine Protected Areas

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Abstract

Although most special regulations that provide for the protection of the marine environment are limited either to a specific species, regions or activities, two regulations and instruments need to be mentioned: Art. 194 (5) UNCLOS is the most commonly recognized basis for the establishment of Marine Protected Areas although limited to rare or fragile ecosystems and habitats of depleted, threatened or endangered species and other forms of marine life. Furthermore, the State community is currently discussing a treaty for the protection of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ), which includes the concept of area-based management tools. The next negotiation round is expected to take place in 2023.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 31.

  2. 2.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, p. 211, para. 538 and pp. 128 f., para. 320; Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 35; Oude Elferink (2018), p. 445.

  3. 3.

    See: Application of Art. 194 (5) UNCLOS to Art. 194 (1)-(4) UNCLOS.

  4. 4.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, p. 211, para. 538 and pp. 128 f., para. 320; PCA, South China Sea Arbitration, Philippines v. China (Award), p. 376, para. 945; ITLOS, Southern Bluefin Tuna Cases, New Zealand v. Japan; Australia v. Japan, Provisional Measures, ITLOS Reports 1999, pp. 280, 295, para. 70; Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 30, 35.

  5. 5.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 33; PCA, South China Sea Arbitration, Philippines v. China (Award), pp. 388 ff., para. 977 ff. and p. 380, para. 983.

  6. 6.

    PCA, South China Sea Arbitration, Philippines v. China (Award), p. 376, para. 945; Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 33.

  7. 7.

    UN Doc A/45/10, p. 57.

  8. 8.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 30.

  9. 9.

    PCA, South China Sea Arbitration, Philippines v. China (Award), pp. 388 ff., para. 977 ff. and p. 394, para. 983; Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 33.

  10. 10.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 33.

  11. 11.

    https://cites.org/eng/app/index.php.

  12. 12.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, p. 211, para. 538 and pp. 128 f., para. 320; Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 35; Oude Elferink (2018), p. 445.

  13. 13.

    See: Obligation to Adopt Active Measures – Establishment of MPAs.

  14. 14.

    See: Art. 192 UNCLOS as Customary International Law.

  15. 15.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 1; Nordquist et al. (2013), 194.10(n).

  16. 16.

    Mossop (2017), p. 202.

  17. 17.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, p. 211, para. 540; PCA, South China Sea Arbitration, Philippines v. China (Award), p. 293, para. 742; Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 28.

  18. 18.

    Mossop (2017), p. 183.

  19. 19.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, p. 211, para. 540; PCA, South China Sea Arbitration, Philippines v. China (Award), p. 293, para. 742.

  20. 20.

    See: Erga Omens Obligation to Protect and Preserve the Marine Environment Applies to State Exercising Activities in the Sea.

  21. 21.

    https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/biodiversity-metric-marine.pdf, p. 1, f.

  22. 22.

    Mossop (2017), pp. 190, 202.

  23. 23.

    https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/economics/#:~:text=The%20Economics%20of%20Ecosystems%20and%20Biodiversity%20(TEEB)%20is%20a%20global,of%20ecosystem%20services%20and%20biodiversity; https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Business%20Functions/Sustainability/Our%20Insights/Valuing%20nature%20conservation/Valuing-nature-conservation.pdf.

  24. 24.

    Mossop (2017), p. 202.

  25. 25.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, pp. 211 f., para. 541; Mossop (2017), p. 191.

  26. 26.

    See: Level of Protection and Categories.

  27. 27.

    See: Less Restrictive Measure to Comply with the Obligation under Art. 192 UNCLOS.

  28. 28.

    See: Obligation to Cooperate – Engagement of the States Concerned.

  29. 29.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, p. 215, para. 547.

  30. 30.

    PCA, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration, Mauritius v. UK (Award) 2015, p. 202, para. 519; PCA, South China Sea Arbitration, Philippines v. China (Award), p. 293, para. 742.

  31. 31.

    See: Subject To, Condition By and In Accordance With Regulation.

  32. 32.

    See: No Abuse of Rights under Art. 300 UNCLOS.

  33. 33.

    https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/why-care-about-ocean.html; https://www.un.org/depts/los/global_reporting/WOA_RPROC/Chapter_55.pdf; see: Fundamental Value, p. 100.

  34. 34.

    https://cleartax.in/g/terms/industrialisation#:~:text=Industrialisation%20is%20the%20period%20of,grow%20on%20a%20significant%20scale.

  35. 35.

    ICJ, Case concerning the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project, Judgement (Merits), ICJ Reports 1997, pp. 7, 77 f, para. 140.

  36. 36.

    Wolfrum (1990), p. 308.

  37. 37.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 116, mn. 17.

  38. 38.

    http://www.fao.org/iuu-fishing/international-framework/fao-compliance-agreement/en/; http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/userupload/legal/docs/012s-e.pdf; Proelss (2017), Art. 116, mn. 18.

  39. 39.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 116, mn. 18.

  40. 40.

    Freestone (2012), p. 200; Tanaka (2019), p. 288.

  41. 41.

    Rothwell and Stephens (2016), p. 356.

  42. 42.

    UNGA A/58/65, p. 22, para. 61; Rothwell and Stephens (2016), p. 357.

  43. 43.

    https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-24930976; UNGA, A/58/65, p. 21, para. 57; Rothwell and Stephens (2016), p. 356.

  44. 44.

    UN A/58/65, p. 21, para. 57 ff.

  45. 45.

    Mossop (2017), p. 183.

  46. 46.

    Proelss (2017), Art. 194, mn. 28.

  47. 47.

    WTO Doc WT/DS246/AB/R, para. 88; WTO Doc WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R, para. 104; WTO Doc WT/DS46/ AB/R, 2, para. 139–141; WTO Doc WT/DS231/AB/R, 26, para. 275; Crawford (2012), p. 564.

  48. 48.

    Foster (2010), p. 27; ICJ, Corfu Channel Case, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1949, pp. 4, 18.

  49. 49.

    Scovazzi (2004), p. 1.

  50. 50.

    UNGA A/CONF.232/2020/3, p. 1, para. 2; Gjerde et al. (2019), p. 6; UNGA A/RES/72/249; https://www.un.org/depts/los/biodiversity/prepcom_files/Chairs_streamlined_non-paper_to_delegations.pdf; https://www.un.org/bbnj/content/background.

  51. 51.

    See: Impediment for the Designation of MPAs – Zonal Division of the Sea; Impediment for the Establishment of MPAs – Limited Binding Effect of Treaties; Tiller et al. (2019), p. 240.

  52. 52.

    See: Historical Development.

  53. 53.

    https://www.un.org/Depts/los/biodiversity/prepcom_files/Chairs_streamlined_non-paper_to_delegations.pdf, pp. 20 ff.; UNGA A/CONF.232/2020/3, pp. 13 ff.

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    Anna von Rebay

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von Rebay, A. (2023). Special Regulations. In: The Designation of Marine Protected Areas. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-29175-3_7

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-29175-3_7

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