Dirt Tracks off the Superhighway: How COVID Widened the Digital Gap for Remote First Nations communities in Australia

Abstract

This chapter outlines findings from a 2020 review of the impact of telecommunications infrastructure programs on internet access in Australia’s remote Indigenous communities (RICs) and outstanding needs. This review was undertaken for the Australian Communications Consumer Action Network (ACCAN) about 6 months after the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. The review outlined over $155 million of investment in telecommunications infrastructure in RICS by governments and industry over the last 5 years. However, it found that significant gaps in access and usage of communications technologies remained due to issues of affordability, lack of last mile delivery or community access facilities, service quality and congestion, and barriers to using online services. Some communities have chosen to not accept infrastructure due to concerns around cyber-safety, potential impacts on cultural and social cohesion, and ongoing costs of services and maintenance. Without a coordinated digital inclusion strategy in place to address these barriers, there is currently a patchwork of solutions. The chapter concludes by outlining the report’s recommendations and noting subsequent policy efforts to address the growing digital divide for First Nations people in Australia, including establishing a target to close the digital inclusion gap.

1 Introduction

In April 2021 the Australian Government announced digital inclusion as a new Closing the Gap target, aiming for digital equity for First Nations people by 2026 (Coalition of Australian Governments, 2020). The Closing the Gap target is intended to provide the incentive for government investment in measuring and tracking digital inclusion of remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders. However, the COVID-19 experience suggests this is highly ambitious without a targeted and well-funded strategy to bridge the growing digital gap.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are among the most digitally excluded population groups in Australia. While the availability of communications services has improved for most remote First Nations communities since 2010 this has not necessarily led to improved household access. The digital divide has become increasingly localised and impacted by remoteness, size of community, last-mile infrastructure, cost, and state-based and local initiatives. This pre-existing digital divide, particularly in remote Australia, has been exacerbated by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

The digital transformation of Government service delivery has accelerated since the pandemic arrived in Australia around March 2020, premised on a misguided assumption of ubiquitous access. While many Australians quickly transitioned to working from home and online learning, those experiencing digital exclusion–including people on low income or homeless, elderly, and many in remote and rural areas–were unable to access critical health, education, welfare, and banking services.

In Australia’s remote and very remote communities, hard lockdowns were put in place to avoid the introduction of COVID-19. With many community facilities, schools and service centres closed and an estimated 30% of remote Indigenous people without household access to telephony or internet, very few people had the option of doing home schooling, working from home, or accessing online services. During this time, First Nations media services played a crucial role in delivering health messages in local languages, keeping communities informed and supporting social cohesion.

This chapter outlines findings from a 2020 review of the impact of telecommunications infrastructure programs on internet access in remote Indigenous communities (RICs) and to identify outstanding needs for communities and homelands. This review was undertaken for the Australian Communications Consumer Action Network (ACCAN) about 6 months after the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. The chapter concludes by outlining the report’s recommendations and noting subsequent policy efforts to address the growing digital divide for First Nations people in Australia, including establishing a target to close the digital inclusion gap.

2 Context

2.1 Factors Affecting Telecommunications Usage in RICS

The communicative ecology of remote Indigenous communities varies greatly due to size of community and available services, geographic factors, history of communications access, English literacy levels, and cultural and socio-economic factors (Featherstone, 2015). Many remote households remain disconnected, with no mobile coverage in most small communities and homelands, making public phones and community access facilities or Wi-Fi the only communications services available.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people represent 3.3% of the total Australian population, with just under 20% (18.6%) of this population living in Australia’s 1115 discrete Indigenous communities and homelands (ABS, 2016). Of these, almost three quarters (865) had a population of less than 50 people (Community Housing and Infrastructure Needs Survey, 2006) (Fig. 2.1).

Fig. 2.1

Size and spread of discrete Indigenous communities by population, 2001. (Source: ABS: https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/d105255d2996ecbaca256fe70019f3a6/ae34db3435ef319eca2572bf00195de7/$FILE/Map2_1.pdf)

Prior to the pandemic, household poverty levels in very remote communities were already above 50% (ABS, 2016). It is likely that this has significantly increased during the pandemic due to lack of employment, reduced access to welfare services, and high cost of food and essentials. Other unique challenges for many First Nations people living in RICs include limited training and employment options leading to welfare dependency, high living costs, high incidence of chronic disease and significantly lower life expectancy, high rates of incarceration, over-crowded housing, and seasonal climatic factors affecting road access and supplies and services.

While the National Broadband Network (NBN) was premised on the promise of broadband access to all Australians, this has not eventuated in remote communities. With post-paid satellite services the only option available to the majority of RICs, the vast majority of households have not signed up to avoid the risk of unaffordable bills and potential loss of services as a result, or due to insufficient credit records. As a result, NBN satellite services in RICs tend to be taken up by community agencies, staff homes or used as the basis of shared WiFi services provided by a local agency. For example NBN established a Public interest Premises (PIP) product in 2015 to enable shared use of a satellite service via WiFi with the agency able to recoup costs using voucher system. There are over 100 of these PIP services in communities, with many other agencies providing free WiFi using NBN satellite backhaul.

Where there is mobile access, pre-paid services are used predominantly due to low, unreliable incomes and large households making bill-sharing difficult. First Nations people are typically mobile-only users with device sharing common within families. This can create issues around cost-sharing, excessive use by young people, privacy and inability to tailor user settings. Facebook and other social media are used extensively to communicate, with email use uncommon for personal communications. However, the rapid uptake of mobile and social media has led to a range of cyber-safety issues, including access to inappropriate content, sexting, ‘jealousing’, posting of fight videos and online bullying, resulting in family disputes and even suicides (Rennie et al., 2018). To avoid these cyber-safety risks and social impacts, some communities have chosen not to accept mobile infrastructure, and others have chosen to put ‘filters’ on community Wi-Fi, restricting the types of content and times when access is available.

Infrastructure, however, is only one element of digital inclusion. First Nations Media Australia (2019b) identifies four key obstacles (Featherstone, 2015) to digital participation for RICs:

• Availability – access to services and networks, including last mile distribution and community access facilities;

• Affordability of mobile and internet services, devices and technical support;

• Awareness – digital skills, cyber-safety issues, knowledge of services and available content;

• Appropriateness of content and applications, interfaces, training, support and services.

With about 160 First Nations languages still spoken across Australia (ABS, 2016), English literacy is low in some regions particularly among older people, for whom English may be a third or fourth language. Online text-based services, help desks and voice-recognition services can be unusable as a result. There are many barriers to using online services, including the requirement of numerous forms of identification which many people do not have, including email address, street address, birth date and location, and home or mobile phone number.

There is also a high level of mobility and regular travel of vast distances to visit family, attend funerals and cultural activities, and access services in regional centres for health, training, shopping and government services. All of these factors need to be considered in determining appropriate communications modes.

2.2 Measuring the Digital Gap for First Nations People

The Australian Digital Inclusion Index (ADII) is an annual survey of digital inclusion levels across the country. The ADII measures digital inclusion across three dimensions: access, affordability, and digital ability. Undertaken by RMIT and Swinburne Universities, with support from Telstra, the ADII is the only national measurement tool of digital inclusion in Australia (Fig. 2.2).

Fig. 2.2

ADII results for Indigenous Australians 2020

The ADII shows that the digital inclusion gap between First Nations people and the national average reduced from 2014 to 2018 but has widened in recent years from 5.8 in 2018 to 7.9 in 2020. This gap is evident across each of the three Index dimensions, with the greatest gap in digital ability (Thomas et al., 2020; see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 ADII results for Indigenous Australians 2020

Data collection for the ADII, however, only includes urban and regional First Nations people and not those living in RICs. Clearly the range of these barriers are more extreme in remote and outer regional Australia, however there is little quantitative data to measure the scale of the remote digital gap (ACMA, 2008; Rennie et al., 2019). Indeed, prior to the research discussed here, there had not been a comprehensive review of communications infrastructure and government programs in RICs since 2008, with the National Broadband Network established and a range of other programs implemented to improve communications access in remote and regional Australia since then. However, there was no coordinated data collection to identify the impact of these programs on First Nations household access or usage or outstanding connectivity gaps (First Nations Media Australia, 2019a).

To address this lack of remote community data, the ADII undertook supplementary case studies in Ali Curung, Northern Territory in 2018 and Pormpuraaw in far north Queensland in 2019. These studies found the digital gap significantly increased with remoteness, to 17.3 and 25.2 respectively (see Table 2.2), particularly in the areas of Access and Affordability.

Table 2.2 ADII Case Study results for Ali Curung 2018 and Pormpuraaw 2019

Apart from ADII reports, most data on First Nations internet use is more than 5 years old. The 2014–2015 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders Survey (NATSISS) found that 71.1% of metropolitan Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people used the internet every day, compared to 36.5% in remote areas and 19% in very remote areas. Remote users were found to rely primarily on out of home access.

The 2016 ABS Census found that 75.3% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander households are accessing the internet, compared with 85.8% of all Australians. Usage varies significantly based on location with 82.8% internet access in major metropolitan areas, compared with 73.2% in regional areas, 61.3% in remote areas, and 49.9% in very remote areas (Rennie et al., 2019). The ABS removed the internet connectivity questions from the 2021 census preventing future comparison.

A 2016 survey of 401 homelands and outstations in Northern Territory (CAT, 2016) found that only 20% of homelands had mobile phone access, 37% had internet access and, of those communities, 80% had only a single internet access point.

In terms of device access, a 2016 remote communities survey undertaken by Indigenous Remote Communications Association found that 77% of people owned or shared a mobile phone, 39% owned or accessed a desktop or laptop computer, and 22% had a home landline phone. Overall internet access was found to be 71% (IRCA, 2016).

The remote digital gap has been exacerbated by the pandemic, however there is a lack of data to quantify the full impact.

3 Impact of COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic arrived in Australia in March 2020, with international and state borders closed to prevent the virus’ spread. In remote communities, there were hard lockdowns on non-essential visitors and closure of schools and many local services facilities to prevent the potentially devastating impact of the pandemic. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are particularly vulnerable to COVID-19 due to high chronic disease rates, overcrowded housing, high mobility, and limited access to medical facilities.

While the restrictions successfully kept COVID-19 out of remote communities during 2020, it resulted in many remote people having limited access to essential services. This was exacerbated by digital exclusion. The first cases in RICs began in western NSW communities in August 2021, with rapid spread to over 30% of Wilcannia’s population in and continued outbreaks in other towns. Northern Territory’s first major outbreak in November 2021 led to concerns the Delta variant would spread rapidly to remote communities with devastating impact. WA, SA and Queensland have managed to contain outbreaks from reaching remote communities to date.

As much of Australia moved to remote work and schooling and many government services transitioned to online delivery, average monthly data usage rose 60% to 330GB per user nationally (ACCC, 2021). However, in remote communities, with already limited household connectivity and high data costs, working or learning from home was rarely an option.

National news stories and reports began to highlight the lack of communications access and impact of the digital divide in remote communities during this period. A World Vision report found that one in four First Nations households had no internet access, with many children in remote communities unable to participate in schooling (Winch, 2020). With schools closed for weeks or months at a time, the shift to online lesson delivery and videoconferencing was not possible in remote communities. Some remote schools hand delivered learning resources to households but there was typically low engagement in home schooling. In 2020 NBN’s remediation efforts through its Communities in Isolation project provided free satellite delivered Wi-Fi facilities into 54 communities. Initially intended as a short-term program, it has been extended until 2023 with another 50 sites planned to receive the Wi-Fi services in 2022. Unfortunately this had limited overall impact on remote school attendance.

An outbreak of COVID-19 in Wilcannia community in August 2021 led to national awareness of the low vaccination rates in remote communities. However, with vaccination misinformation spreading faster than the vaccination roll out to remote communities during 2021, there was vaccine hesitancy in many remote communities. This led to continued lockdowns and further delays in return of some local services.

Throughout the pandemic, First Nations radio and TV services played an important role in keeping people informed and connected and sharing government health messages using trusted local voices, including in language. Over 47% of First Nations people have access to a First nations radio service (IRCA, 2016) with satellite-delivered TV services (National Indigenous TV, Indigenous Community TV) available to remote households nationally. Some communities developed innovative local strategies to connect their communities and continue services such as school lessons and elderly support. For example, Wilcannia River Radio provided daily school lessons via radio and a range of community support programs.

4 Outcomes of Remote Indigenous Communications Review

4.1 Materials and Methods of Review

The review was undertaken in two parts: (1) a summary of previous and existing communications infrastructure programs and government and industry investment; and (2) outstanding communications needs of remote communities identified through community consultation. This involved a wide-ranging desktop research of existing data, research and grey literature and consultation with state and federal government agencies, industry stakeholders, First Nations organisations and remote community stakeholders.

The review identified outstanding needs in remote communities through analysis of grey literature, news articles and review submissions, as well as phone and email consultation with representatives from First Nations peak agencies and community-based or regional organisations across the country.

The review also considered the potential impact of emerging technologies such as low-earth orbit satellite.

4.2 Telecommunications Infrastructure and Access Programs for Remote Indigenous Communities

While Federal and State governments have collected data on availability of communications services, only limited data is publicly available online.¹ Despite this lack, there has been significant improvements in telecommunications coverage and digital connectivity in RICs over the last decade. This is largely due to the introduction of the NBN Sky Muster satellite, the Mobile Black Spot Program (MBSP), State/Territory government co-investment programs, the Community Phones Program, and local initiatives to provide shared WiFi services and access facilities. Taken together, approximately $155 million was invested in communications infrastructure for RICs nationally from 2015–2020, excluding undisclosed investment by telecommunications companies, and the cost of the NBN SkyMuster satellites (see Table 2.3).

Table 2.3 Approximately $155 million of Federal, State/territory and industry investment from 2015–2020 resulted in improved connectivity in RICs

While governments and industry have given increased attention to the communications needs of RICs due to the pandemic, digital transformation of government services, social responsibility targets, and NBNCo’s focus on digital inclusion following the rollout completion in June 2020. Despite this increased need, federal funding for Indigenous-specific communications programs had declined since 2010.

While figures vary between states, most RICs with populations over 200 now have mobile coverage and most homelands and outstations with populations under 50 have a public phone. Nearly 300 of these are WiFi-enabled. Small to medium-sized communities (population <200) are the most underserved cohort, with many having only a public phone and no internet access.

The opportunities for expanded mobile coverage under mainstream programs such as the MBSP, which require at least 50% state and/or industry co-investment, have now been largely exhausted for RICs due to market failure owing to sparse populations, remoteness and/or lack of terrestrial backhaul infrastructure. This points to the need for a targeted, and fully funded program to ensure a next-level digital divide is not set up between larger and smaller communities, or a localised divide between service providers and Indigenous households within communities.

4.2.1 National Telecommunications Programs

Since 2010, the Australian Government’s communications budget has centered on the NBN, Mobile Black Spots Program and recently the Regional Connectivity Program, leading to significant improvements in satellite and mobile connectivity in RICs.

The NBN was established by the Rudd Labor Government in 2008, promising to provide fast broadband to all Australian households. A fibre-to-the-premises (FTTP) solution was planned for 93% of Australian households, with 4% fixed wireless on the periphery of urban and large regional centres, and a satellite solution across the remaining 3% of Australian households. The FTTP approach was later changed by the Abbott Government in 2013 to a mostly fibre-to-the-node solution using a multi-technology mix. A satellite solution was determined for remote Australia, with NBNCo launching two SkyMuster geo-stationary satellites in 2015 and 2016. Customers must sign a contract with a Retail Service Provider (RSP) with post-paid plans and await installation by NBNCo. Costs start at $35/month for a 12/1MBps plan or from $50/month for 25/5Mbps SkyMuster Plus services. Since April 2020, all traffic on Sky Muster Plus plans was unmetered except for video streaming and VPN use. While this has addressed the need for fast, reliable satellite broadband at a comparable rate to urban broadband rates, there has been very low take-up by remote Indigenous households due to having post-paid options only. In 2015, NBNCo established a Public Interest Premises (PIP) satellite product to enable local agencies to establish shared WiFi using pre-paid vouchers. There are now over 100 PIP services in place in remote communities.

The Mobile Black Spots Program (MBSP) is a federally managed co-investment program to expand mobile coverage to identified regional and remote towns and highways. Under the first five rounds, the Government’s commitment of $380million generated $836 million investment to deliver 1229 new base stations across Australia. This included approximately 41 base stations in and around RICs, particularly in northern Australia. The Government has since run round 6 of the MBSP as well as a $53 million Regional Connectivity Program, a more flexible program to address congestion or patchy coverage, support backhaul upgrades, satellite small cell or WiFi solutions.

The Australian government (through NIAA) currently funds public phones and WiFi services in small RICs and homelands. The program, managed by Australian Private Networks (APN), provides up to 301 fixed solar-powered phone booths to communities of less than 50 people. Since 2013 about 98% of these phone booths were upgraded to include satellite WiFi hot spots. APN’s contract also involves servicing an additional 245 public phones in RICs. Telstra operates an additional 573 public phones, which remain a primary means of communications for many people in RICs.

There has also been the Universal Service Obligation (USO), a $270 m per annum industry/government funded contract awarded to Telstra since 1991, a safety net program aimed at providing equitable access to standard telephony services, payphones, emergency and disability services nationally. However, data, mobile telephony and pre-paid services are not included in the USO, making it an outdated instrument despite ongoing legacy contracts continuing to 2032. In 2018 the Department of Communications and the Arts developed a new Universal Service Guarantee (USG), which updates the USO by ensuring all Australian homes and businesses have access to both broadband and voice services, regardless of their location. NBNCo is listed as the Statutory Infrastructure Provider, or provider of last resort.

An Alternative Voice Services Trial is currently underway to assess the effectiveness of alternative means of delivering voice services in rural and remote Australia, particularly those areas currently serviced under the USO.

4.2.2 State Government Programs

While telecommunications is primarily a federal Government responsibility, Australia’s state and territory governments have co-invested in mobile infrastructure and other infill programs over the last decade - particularly in WA, NT and Queensland.

WA Government have been proactive in monitoring and addressing telecommunication gaps in remote communities and has invested $125 million since 2012 to expand mobile coverage and reduce communication gaps in small communities across regional and remote Western Australia. As a result, WA’s level of mobile coverage in RICs is exceptional compared to most other states, with all but two communities of over 100 people having coverage, including 84% of medium sized communities (50–200 people) and 45% of small communities and homelands.² WA Government has also funded an innovative trial of small cell mobile coverage and community-wide WiFi Mesh rollout in Tjuntjuntjara community, with aggregated data use and VoIP phones in all houses. WA Government (DPIRD) is expanding the rollout of WiFi to other remote communities as a place-based approach, a model that could be adopted in other states.

Northern Territory Government (NTG) have implemented a range of programs to identify and address the specific needs of remote Indigenous communities in the NT despite very limited budgets. With a 32% Indigenous population, of which approximately 79% live in the 400+ remote communities and homelands across the NT, NTG have focused initial efforts on providing mobile coverage to larger communities (over 200 people) where there was existing fibre backhaul. For NT, 84% of communities with population over 200 have mobile coverage, 50% of medium sized communities have coverage and less than 4% of the 644 family outstations and small communities have mobile coverage. While NTG are now seeking low-cost solutions to connect smaller communities, it acknowledges there is still much work to be done, with “21 remote communities (over 100 people) with no mobile phone service, 33 with no fixed internet service (ADSL) and 37 connected to the NBN via unreliable or unsuitable satellite services in 2018” (NTG, 2018).

Queensland government had provided co-investment under the Mobile Black Spot Program and other federal programs to provide or upgrade mobile services in most of the larger RICs. It was also undertaking a joint project with the Torres Strait Regional Authority (TSRA) and Telstra to upgrade and expand the mobile network in the Torres Strait region. Due to concerns about the limitations of satellite broadband delivery and lack of planning for NBN fibre expansion, Queensland Government funded the establishment of a fibre backhaul network Queensland Capacity Network (QCN) to increase areas that can be reached by fibre.

Each of the other states – NSW, SA, Victoria and Tasmania – have set up funding programs to expand and improve mobile coverage, including through co-investment in with the Mobile Black Spots Program, and provide public WiFi services in some regional towns. While these have mostly supported regional areas, there has been improvement in mobile coverage in the remote Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Lands of SA, with six new mobile base stations installed in 2018.

With the Internet-of-Things reaching remote and rural communities, there is increasing need for reliable connectivity for remote activation and monitoring of pumps, tanks and generators and other applications.

4.2.3 Industry Programs

Since completing the national rollout of the fibre and fixed wireless network in mid 2020, NBNCo has turned its focus to connecting customers to its network and improving services, including SkyMuster satellite services. As a COVID-19 response, it provided up to $150 million of financial hardship relief for low-income households and small businesses, as well as increased data allowances. NBNCo has taken a particular focus to improving digital capability and engagement, including in remote Indigenous communities where it has installed over 50 free WiFi services to support engagement with home schooling in small under-served communities and homelands. As noted above this Communities in Isolation program was initially a short-term response during the pandemic but has been extended with Wi-Fi equipment to remain for 3 years, and is to be expanded to up to 100 sites. With end of life for Sky Muster in about 2030, NBNCo is looking at ways to expand terrestrial and low-latency broadband delivery in regional and remote Australia, including possible use of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite constellations.

Telstra has been involved in a range of co-investment programs with state governments in WA, NT, Queensland and SA to expand mobile coverage and deliver tele-health services and improved school connectivity in RICS. It has committed to further mobile co-investment and tele-health services in RICs under its Reconciliation Action Plan. Telstra is also now providing a satellite small cell mobile option to communities without fibre backhaul, with funding support through the MBSP, Regional Connectivity Program or community co-investment.

As well as co-funding mobile phone coverage in 13 NT communities, Telstra funded the inDigiMOB Digital inclusion program, delivered by First Nations Media Australia in over 20 NT communities.³ Initially funded from 2015–2019, funding was extended in 2020 for an additional 3 years to expand the program with inter-state reach. Telstra also funds several other digital inclusion programs including the Indigenous Digital Excellence community training program. Until 2020 this provided digital workshops to school groups in remote communities, run by National Centre for Indigenous Excellence. The Deadly Digital Communities, run in Queensland’s Indigenous Knowledge Centre network in partnership with State Library of Queensland. Telstra also supports several digital inclusion research initiatives including the Australian Digital Inclusion Index (ADII), cyber-safety research in communities and the new ‘Mapping the Digital Gap’ project.⁴

Telstra delivers the USO contract to ensure equitable and reliable public phone access, fixed line telephony and emergency communications services in remote and rural areas of Australia. The USO contract is approximately $270 million a year, co-funded through government and industry contribution. The contract has been extended to 2032, however a replacement USG is now in place to include data and mobile services (Department of Communications and the Arts, 2018). During the pandemic, Telstra made calls free from its 573 payphones in RICs. Telstra extended this nationally in 2021, making calls to fixed line and mobile phones free of charge from all 36,000 payphones.

The other large telecommunications companies, Optus and Vodafone, have limited services in remote communities due to Telstra’s legacy ownership of the fibre network and mobile infrastructure throughout much of regional Australia. Optus have made some in-roads in mobile delivery through MBSP funding, including satellite delivered small cell in communities without fibre backhaul.

Other smaller communications companies, including Australian Private Networks (APN) and Easyweb Digital, have played a significant role as retail service providers of NBN satellite services, including the Public Interest Premises (PIP) product. Both companies offer WiFi solutions which enable community agencies to on-sell pre-paid data using a voucher system. Numerous organisations use these services to provide a mix of managed public and pre-paid WiFi in communities and tourism sites, including Northern Territory Library, WA Government, Central Australian Youth Link-Up Service (CAYLUS). As outlined above, APN are also contracted to manage 546 public payphones in small communities and homelands.

Two international companies, Starlink (Space X) and OneWeb, are currently setting up Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite constellations to deliver low-latency satellite communications services. While Starlink currently had only 1600 of a planned 12,000 satellites in orbit, it began delivering high speed services in Australia from 2021. While costs for up-front equipment and services are currently more expensive than NBN SkyMuster, LEO services are already becoming an attractive alternative for agencies and customers requiring high speeds and low latency for tele-health, online learning and other high bandwidth applications.

4.2.4 Digital Inclusion and Support Programs

Over the last 2 years there have been digital inclusion plans developed by WA, Victoria and NT Governments. However, there is currently no coordinated national digital inclusion plan to align policy and funding efforts, despite a digital transformation strategy aimed at having all government service delivery online by 2025.⁵

Since the late 1990s, there was a succession of targeted Australian Government programs aimed at providing IT facilities, internet access and training into RICs. These include the Networking the Nation program (1998–2003), Telecommunications Action Plan for Remote Indigenous Communities (2003–2006), Backing Indigenous Ability (2006–2008), and the Indigenous Communications Program (2009–2013). While these programs had relatively low budgets to address the scale of need (e.g. $8.3 million over 3 years for TAPRIC), they helped provide ICT access and awareness in some regions. However, without recurrent funding, there has been little continuity or progression from one program to the next. Since 2013, there has been no targeted program for ICT access and skills development for First Nations people, despite the growing digital gap.

Since 2014/2015, the main activity under the replacement Remote Indigenous Communities Telecommunications Activity (RICTA) has been the Community Phones Program, providing public WiFi phones in small homelands as outlined above. RICTA has an annual budget of about $4 million. It was managed by Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (DPMC) from 2014–2018 and National Indigenous Australians Agency (NIAA) since then. Other activities included a Community WiFi Trial program in five communities and development of a digital inclusion app with IT learning tools and cyber-safety information called ‘Your Online Journey’. Other targeted digital literacy initiatives include Be Deadly Online, an online cyber-safety resource package, an awareness campaign called ‘Keep Our Mob Safe Online’ and a Scamwatch program by Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) to increase awareness of scams.

While the Australian Government has moved away from funding community access internet facilities in the last decade, various State Government and NGO initiatives have continued to support remote access facilities, mostly in locations with local staff capacity and operational support. These include Central Australian Youth Link-Up Service (CAYLUS), which supports 28 computer rooms and free WiFi hotpots in Central Australian communities, the Indigenous Knowledge Centre network supporting 31 public library and computer access centres across Queensland, and the Community Resources Centre Network providing internet and community services to 100 regional towns and six remote communities in WA. The inDigiMOB digital inclusion project,⁶ managed by First Nations Media Australia, and Deadly Digital Communities training in Queensland, both funded by Telstra, are two of the main digital skills and support programs currently going, with more needed. The inDigiMOB project, established in 2016, provides digital training and support for community digital mentors in 23 remote NT communities.

4.3 Outstanding Needs in RICs

4.3.1 Access Issues

Although communications availability has generally improved due to enhanced infrastructural provision, there has been little improvement in household access. The digital divide has become localised, typically between service agencies and residents within communities, but also by job/role, age, income, and location of residence. While most agencies and staff residences report improved internet access, there remains limited household connections and, in smaller communities and homelands, virtually no internet access where public WiFi is not provided. The next level challenges of last-mile delivery and ICT access remain unaddressed for many sites.

With many service facilities and computer rooms closed during COVID-19 lockdown periods, and public Wi-Fi turned off in several communities to avoid congregation and virus spread, many people were without internet access for months throughout 2020. And Although the Jobkeeper program ensured employed people continued to receive wages while unable to work, there were reports of Centrelink unemployment benefits being cut for people who missed reporting dates due to lack of phone or internet access.

The quality and reliability of mobile services remains an issue in many places, with descriptions of patchy or unreliable coverage and high congestion at peak use times. This may have been exacerbated by the heavier reliance on mobile for broadband access during COVID-19 restrictions, as well as increased data usage for video streaming and other data-hungry applications. ADSL services were also heavily congested and unreliable, with local or regional exchanges needing upgrades to meet demand.

Many communities reported communications outages, including mobile and public phones, sometimes lasting up to days or weeks. With a lack of backhaul redundancy or alternate connectivity options in most communities, whole communities were unable to communicate, buy food and supplies, or access essential services during outages. This created a serious health risk with high incidence of diabetes and other health conditions, with some communities providing food drops or store vouchers to households.

Power outages also affected communications services in communities typically reliant on local diesel generators. NBN satellite, WiFi services and satellite small cell mobile rely on community power supply, which can be unreliable especially during emergencies. Backup batteries and/or solar power cells are needed to ensure reliability. Also, with pre-paid power meters installed in remote households in several states, inability to afford power cards also precludes use of household satellite equipment, Wi-Fi or television.

In northern Australia, where community road access can be cut for months during tropical wet season, many agencies highlighted the limitations of satellite services to access emergency information during cyclones and emergencies due to rain fade. There were calls for increased terrestrial communications broadband rollout (via fibre optic or microwave) across northern Australia as well as redundancy services for emergency use.

In sites without mobile coverage, there were numerous calls for infrastructure upgrades to telephony and ADSL infrastructure to ensure ongoing reliability and availability of phone lines. Several people raised safety concerns about sole reliance on payphones for communications in many small communities, particularly during emergencies or domestic violence situations, where use may not be safe or viable.

There was demand for more public access Wi-Fi services with routers to enable local management of content filtering, data allowances and usage times. However, organisations providing Wi-Fi services argued the need for funding support to enable free access.

4.3.2 Affordability Issues

As previously outlined, affordability continues to be the key factor in this growing digital divide. Most people opt for pre-paid mobile services due to low, unreliable incomes. Other barriers to using post-paid billed services include inability to sign up for plans remotely and reluctance to pay for shared services or risk excess data costs.

With Telstra fined $50 million by ACCC in 2020 for unconscionable sales practices due to several regional Telstra shops selling unaffordable mobile plans to low-income customers, and research by MoneyMob Talkabout finding hundreds of central Australian Indigenous consumers had accrued large mobile phone debts totalling over $1.1 million (Cartwright & McAuliffe, 2020), it is understandable why post-paid services are viewed cautiously.

With call costs reduced, data costs make up the primary expense on pre-paid mobile. Pre-paid data costs up to $4/GB compared with under $1/GB for post-paid. In remote communities, there is generally a lack of mobile phone options, limiting people’s ability to select an affordable or appropriate plan. Telstra established a $30 Value Mobile plan for healthcare card holders, however data use is speed-capped after the first 2GB and there is limited awareness of this option. Since the ACCC ruling, Telstra has developed a targeted awareness campaign to address this issue.

With so many government services now online, there is a need for unmetered access to government, education and key services in remote communities. The Review recommended that WiFi mesh networks be established in small to medium sized communities without mobile coverage or an existing WiFi service, enabling free access to online services and optional pre-paid vouchers to access video or non-essential services. Arrangements should be made with telcos to enable unmetered access to key services on mobile networks.

While shared Wi-Fi currently provides relatively affordable access to data in many communities, usage costs vary with some provided free by a government or local agency, usually with daily data limits, and others using a pre-paid voucher system. With voucher costs set locally, and reports of price gouging in some communities, there is a need for recommended voucher rates.

Use of online media platforms and streaming services is increasing data demand in remote communities, however pre-paid costs make heavier data use unaffordable. Several respondents called for increased data allowances for shared WiFi services. With NBN PIP plans providing only 150GB of monthly data, which some communities exceed within days, the report recommended significantly increasing PIP data capacity and transferring to SkyMuster Plus to enable unmetered basic use.

4.3.3 Digital Ability Issues

While First Nations people are rapid adopters of communications technologies when available, and will share digital skills with family and peers, there are limited programs in place to provide ICT training and support in communities (See section on Digital Inclusion and Support Programs in 4.2 above). This limits the awareness of relevant services, tools and online content that will drive engagement with ICTs and the skills development needed to improve training and employment opportunities.

The report urged recurrent funding for locally run digital skills programs, as skills development happens over years not in a single workshop. However, to be successful, training needs to be culturally appropriate and involve local agencies and mentors able to provide support when and where needed. Having locally relevant content on computers and user-friendly services for people with limited English and digital literacy helps build engagement. The predominance of mobile-only usage results in skills in mobile-friendly services and apps, but little development in keyboard skills and PC-based applications needed for schooling, training courses and many workplaces.

Trust is also a key issue in digital engagement, particularly with numerous stories of online scams and the negative impact of social media through ‘jealousing’, sexting, online bullying and posting of fight videos, creating conflict and even suicides in communities (Rennie et al., 2018). Awareness of cyber-safety issues and scams, as well as appropriate use of social media, are all necessary skills in operating safely online.

The report supported calls for establishment of a First Nations Technology Council to coordinate communications programs aimed at First Nations people and building business skills and opportunities. This could include establishment of an Indigenous owned ISP to provide affordable internet access and appropriate services and support.

5 Key Recommendations and Conclusion

There have been significant improvements in telecommunications coverage and access across remote Australia due to the introduction of the NBN Sky Muster satellite, the Mobile Black Spot Program, State/Territory government co-investment programs, and provision of shared WiFi services and access facilities. However, with market failure preventing further industry co-investment, fully funded investment is needed to avoid a next-level digital divide between and within communities.

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for targeted programs to address outstanding access needs, affordability and digital literacy in remote Indigenous communities. Significant gaps remain in digital access and usage due to issues of affordability, lack of last mile delivery or community access facilities, issues with service reliability and congestion, limited technical support, skills and cyber-safety awareness, and barriers to engagement with online services.

A place-based approach is needed to address these next level obstacles, consider local context and needs, ensure culturally appropriate and sustainable solutions. The report recommended support for localised digital inclusion plans, with a flexible funding program to enable locally developed strategies to address identified barriers, building community capacity and ownership and greater engagement in the solutions.

The report called for funding to measure digital inclusion levels in remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities to address the lack of reliable and current data and removal of the internet access questions from the national Census. This data is needed to determine whether the digital gap in increasing or decreasing and guide funding to address key challenges. While the lack of ADII data collection in remote communities is now being partly addressed by a supplementary Telstra-funded project begun in 2021,⁷ a more comprehensive data collection program is needed to effectively track progress on the Closing the Gap target.

The report concluded with the urgent need for a targeted and coherent Indigenous Digital Inclusion Strategy to coordinate effort and maximise impact over time. The 2018 Regional Telecommunications Review (RTR) had recommended a “targeted Indigenous Digital Inclusion program with a focus on access, affordability and digital ability be developed in partnership with Indigenous communities.” (RTIRC, 2018). In its response, the Australian Government committed to developing an Indigenous Digital Inclusion Plan, however there was no progress until September 2021. The National Indigenous Australians Agency released a discussion paper for input and coordinated an Indigenous-led roundtable process undertaken and working group to develop the Plan, due in early 2022. Many organisations raised concerns that without an associated budget, a Plan may have limited impact.

With the Omicron strain of COVID-19 now reaching many remote communities and lockdowns likely to continue well into 2022, there is increased urgency for targeted solutions to address the growing digital divide for remote First Nations people. Without affordable and reliable communications, it is likely that many of the new Closing the Gap targets, including health, education and employment, will not be reached and remote First Nations people will be increasingly excluded from Australia’s social, economic and digital future. The report urged that data on telecommunications services in RICS be publicly available, enabling analysis of gaps in connectivity and access.⁸