Abstract
The present chapter addresses the construct of language learning strategies (LLS). It starts with an overview of approaches to the investigation of LLS. After anchoring LLS in the so-called good language learner studies (Rubin, 1975), selected definitions and features of LLS are discussed. This is followed by outlining the status quo in strategy research. Afterwards, an account of taxonomies, classifications, and categorizations of LLS is provided. The following part of the chapter addresses LLS through the prism of self-regulation (SR) and thus expands the macro-context of strategy use. This includes a reference to the psychological foundations of SR, reflections on its educational implications and, finally, elaborating on recent insights into the concept of self-regulated language learning (SRLL). Next, the variables affecting the use of LLS are discussed, with the exception of personality, which is addressed in Chap. 3.
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Notes
- 1.
Dörneyi and Ryan (2015) pointed out the ambiguity of strategies and opted for describing strategies as features of the learning process rather than an attribute of the language learner.
- 2.
Mapping the scope of LLS poses a challenge not merely because of the scope of strategy research, but also due to a variety of co-existing approaches which researchers have adopted when attempting to distinguish between various strategies. For this reason, scholars have resorted to categorizations consisting in recognizing, differentiating, and understanding ideas which are grouped for specific purposes (Cohen & Lefebvre, 2005), classifications, that is, ordering entities into groups of classes on the basis of their similarity in order to achieve within-group homogeneity and between-group heterogeneity (Bailey, 1994), or taxonomies, that is, empirically derived groupings, aimed to introduce structure into a body of facts, and build a unified and homogeneous view of a particular domain (Chandra & Tumanyan, 2005).
- 3.
- 4.
Cohen (2014: 16) admits that communication strategies may or may not have impact on learning.
- 5.
The examples that Oxford (2017) provides include using analysing to regulate emotions, manage motivation, or deal with sociocultural issues and attitudes, and thus going beyond its cognitive dimension, and qualifying summarising texts, reconceptualising words, or skipping examples in a text as either cognitive or metacognitive strategies, depending on the researcher’s interpretation.
- 6.
For example, reasoning is traditionally associated with developing receptive skills rather than productive skills (Oxford, 2017).
- 7.
- 8.
It needs to be granted, though, that de Bruin and van Gog (2012) also claim that “(w)hen metacognitive instruction takes into account a number of design principles, accuracy of metacognitive processes in children can equal that of adults” (p. 45).
- 9.
Strunk and Steele (2011) therefore advocated for using the term self-efficacy for self-regulation, as earlier suggested by Klassen et al. (2008).
- 10.
The most advanced learners aimed to review and study between 1000 and 2000 Kanji characters.
- 11.
- 12.
According to Oxford and Nyikos (1989), learners’ attitudes are, in fact, a composite of affective variables, which also include their personality. Since personality cannot really be analyzed in terms of an affective variable, regardless of the framework chosen in order to investigate it, it is considered as a separate factor.
- 13.
- 14.
Politzer (1983) investigated three types of students’ self-reported behaviours, including general behaviours, classroom behaviours, and interactions with others.
- 15.
According to Stern (1992), the combination of the two variables, age and learners’ beliefs, may be of critical importance, as some adult learners might not even make any efforts to learn, for example, the pronunciation of the target language, only due to their conviction of being “too old”.
- 16.
Green and Oxford (1995) related this finding to the tendencies which they had observed in TV programs, which were, at they claimed, dominated by shows preferred by men, such as broadcasts of sport events or action films.
- 17.
Language attainment is probably the most comprehensive term that refers to L2 learners’ achievement, and learning or improving skills, which could be operationalized as performance in specific tests, as suggested by Pawlak (2008), or quantified by self-assessment or CEFR level. Obviously, the term itself denotes a certain degree of ambiguity, which can impede investigating the relationships between language learning strategies and language attainment. This remains particularly relevant from the contemporary perspective of LLS investigations (cf. Pawlak, 2021), especially in the light of criticisms of CEFR scales for insufficient validity (Wisniewski, 2018).
- 18.
Strategy researchers’ belief in the benefits of strategy use led to the arrival of a number of guidebooks for both language learners and course instructors to accelerate the acquisition of the target language, which were later assessed in terms of efficiency. To mention just one example, Cohen (2005) conducted a comprehensive study of a group of language learners and course instructors in order to assess the impact of expanding learners’ LLS repertoires and provide instruction in strategy training and use.
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Przybył, J., Pawlak, M. (2023). Language Learning Strategies. In: Personality as a Factor Affecting the Use of Language Learning Strategies . Second Language Learning and Teaching. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25255-6_2
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