Abstract
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), between 20 and 40 million individuals are victims of trafficking in persons, also known as modern slavery. This chapter has five goals. The first goal is to discuss the recruitment of individuals into modern slavery. The second goal is to examine the risk factors associated with modern slavery. The third goal is to discuss the fate of African slaves, drawing several parallels to the Transatlantic Slave Trade and modern slavery. The fourth goal is to compare historical and modern slavery. The final goal is to examine the strides that policy, the law, and mental health professionals have made to help eradicate modern slavery and help victims of human trafficking to successfully integrate into society.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
1 U.S.C. § 7102(9)). Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2013.
Abas, M., Ostrovschi, N. V., Prince, M., Gorceag, V. I., Trigub, C., & Oram, S. (2013). Risk factors for mental disorders in women survivors of human trafficking: A historical cohort study. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), 1–11.
Amahazion, F. (2015). Human trafficking: The need for human rights and government effectiveness in enforcing anti-trafficking. Global Crime, 16(3), 167–196.
American Civil Liberties Union. (2022). Human trafficking: Modern enslavement of immigrant women in the United States. Accessed from https://www.aclu.org/other/human-trafficking-modern-enslavement-immigrant-women-united-states
Anderson, V. R., & Kulig, T. C. (2021). Human trafficking. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice, 2, 710–715.
Bailey, A. C. (2005). African voices of the Atlantic slave trade: Beyond the silence and the shame. Beacon Press.
Bales, K. (2007). What predicts human trafficking? International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 31(2), 269–279.
Bales, K., Trodd, Z., & Williamson, A. K. (2011). Modern slavery: A beginner’s guide. Simon and Schuster.
Barner, J. R., Okech, D., & Camp, M. A. (2014). Socio-economic inequality, human trafficking, and the global slave trade. Societies, 4(2), 148–160.
Batsyukova, S. (2007). Prostitution and human trafficking for sexual exploitation. Gender Issues, 24(2), 46–50.
Becker, H. J., & Bechtel, K. (2015). Recognizing victims of human trafficking in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatric Emergency Care, 31(2), 145–147.
Bennett, H. L. (2018). African kings and black slaves. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Berlin, I. (2004). Generations of captivity: A history of African-American slaves. Harvard University Press.
Bhalla, P. (Ed.). (2005). Human resources and training in mental health (p. 106). World Health Organization.
Bonilla, T., & Mo, C. H. (2019). The evolution of human trafficking messaging in the United States and its effect on public opinion. Journal of Public Policy, 39(2), 201–234.
Broderick, P. M. (2005). Identifying factors in human trafficking. Universal-Publishers.
Bossard, J. (2022). The field of human trafficking: Expanding on the present state of research. Journal of Human Trafficking, 8, 1–3.
Boswell, K., Temples, H. S., & Wright, M. E. (2019). LGBT youth, sex trafficking, and the nurse practitioner’s role. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 33(5), 555–560.
Boukli, A., & Renz, F. (2019). Deconstructing the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender victim of sex trafficking: Harm, exceptionality and religion–sexuality tensions. International Review of Victimology, 25(1), 71–90.
Butler, C. N. (2015). The racial roots of human trafficking. UCLA Law Review, 62(6), 1464–1514.
Campana, P., & Varese, F. (2016). Exploitation in human trafficking and smuggling. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 22(1), 89–105.
Carper, N. G. (1976). Slavery revisited: Peonage in the south. Phylon (1960-), 37(1), 85–99.
Choi, K. R. (2015). Risk factors for domestic minor sex trafficking in the United States: A literature review. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 11(2), 66–76.
Chung, R. C. Y. (2009). Cultural perspectives on child trafficking, human rights & social justice: A model for psychologists. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 22(1), 85–96.
Clawson, H. J., Dutch, N., Solomon, A., & Goldblatt, G. L. (2009). Human trafficking into and within the United States: A review of the literature. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Accessed from https://aspe.hhs.gov/reports/human-trafficking-within-united-states-review-literature-0
Cockbain, E., & Brayley-Morris, H. (2018). Human trafficking and labour exploitation in the casual construction industry: An analysis of three major investigations in the UK involving Irish traveller offending groups. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 12(2), 129–149. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pax032
Cole, J., & Sprang, G. (2015). Sex trafficking of minors in metropolitan, micropolitan, and rural communities. Child Abuse & Neglect, 40, 113–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.07.015
Da Silva, D. B. D. (2013). The Atlantic slave trade from Angola: A port-by-port estimate of slaves embarked, 1701–1867. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 46(1), 105–122.
Davidson, B. (1980). The African slave trade. Back Bay Books.
Davidson, J. O. C., & Davidson, J. O. C. (2015). ‘Trafficking’as a modern slave trade? mobility, slavery and escape. Modern slavery: The margins of freedom, 109-132.
Davis, K. (2006). Brides, bruises and the border. The SAIS Review of International Affairs, 26(1), 131–141.
Department of Children and Family Services. (2019). Number of identified juvenile trafficking victims rises, adult victims decrease. DCFS Report Finds. Accessed from http://www.dss.state.la.us/news/897
Department of Homeland Security. (2023). What is human trafficking?. Accessed from https://www.dhs.gov/bluecampaign/what-human-trafficking
Dilmore, T. C. (2022). Black female bodies and human trafficking. In Human trafficking (pp. 192–198). Routledge.
Domitrovich, J. S. (2021). Combating human trafficking by educating employees. The Brief, 60(2), 35–36.
Donahue, S., Schwien, M., & LaVallee, D. (2019). Educating emergency department staff on the identification and treatment of human trafficking victims. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 45(1), 16–23.
Estes, R. J., & Weiner, N. A. (2002). The commercial sexual exploitation of children in the U. S., Canada, and Mexico. The University of Pennsylvania, School of Social Work, Center for the Study of Youth Policy.
Falconbridge, A. (1788). An account of the slave trade on the coast of Africa. J. Phillips.
Fedina, L., Williamson, C., & Perdue, T. (2019). Risk factors for domestic child sex trafficking in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(13), 2653–2673.
Feingold, D. A. (2010). Trafficking in numbers: The social construction of human trafficking data. In P. Andreas & K. M. Greenhill (Eds.), Sex, drugs, and body counts: The politics of numbers in global crime and conflict (pp. 46–74). Cornell University Press.
Fehrenbacher, A. E., Musto, J., Hoefinger, H., Mai, N., Macioti, P. G., Giametta, C., & Bennachie, C. (2020). Transgender people and human trafficking: Intersectional exclusion of transgender migrants and people of color from anti-trafficking protection in the United States. Journal of Human Trafficking, 6(2), 182–194.
Feingold, D. A. (2005). Human trafficking. Foreign Policy, 26–32.
Franco, D., Sunkel, M., & Sherman, P. (2021). Social work with transgender survivors of human trafficking: Implications for practice. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 1–10.
Futures Without Violence. (2022). Human trafficking: A hidden problem. Accessed from https://www.futureswithoutviolence.org/human-trafficking-a-hidden-problem/
Goździak, E. M. (2021). Human trafficking as a security threat. In Human trafficking as a new(in) security threat (pp. 33–50). Palgrave Macmillan.
Guardian Group. (2021). What is human trafficking? Accessed from https://guardiangroup.org/what-is-trafficking/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAjc2QBhDgARIsAMc3SqS9LungnhLT5myFlGQTchfIBKv0mW5c4WyNspl69L4_tuDz9zwd894aArsgEALw_wcB
Hart, J. (2009). Human trafficking. The Rosen Publishing Group.
Hepburn, S., & Simon, R. J. (2010). Hidden in plain sight: Human trafficking in the United States. Gender Issues, 27(1), 1–26.
Herman, J. L. (2015). Trauma and recovery the aftermath of violence—From domestic abuse to political terror. Hachette UK.
Hine, D. C. (1979). Female slave resistance: The economics of sex. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 3(2), 123–127.
Hogendorn, J., & Klein, M. A. (1992). The Atlantic slave trade: Effects on economies, societies and peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Duke University Press.
Hope for Justice. (2021). Briefing: Modern slavery & human trafficking in the United Kingdom. Accessed from https://UK-Modern-Slavery-and-Human-Trafficking-Briefing-Document-Oct-2022.pdf
Huang, L. (2017). The trafficking of women and girls in Taiwan: Characteristics of victims, perpetrators, and forms of exploitation. BMC Women’s Health, 17(1), 1–11.
International Labor Organization. (1996–2022). Forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking. Accessed from https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang%2D%2Den/index.htm
International Labor Organization (ILO). (2023). Forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking. Accessed from https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang%2D%2Den/index.htm
Iqbal, S. Z., Salami, T., Reissinger, M. C., Masood, M. H., Ukrani, K., & Shah, A. A. (2021). The mental health clinician’s role in advocacy for survivors of human trafficking: Treatment and management. Psychiatric Annals, 51(8), 373–377.
Jack, W. M., & Kaprove, C. S. (2013). New anti-human trafficking rules to come.
Jennings, T. (1990). “Us colored women had to go through a plenty”: Sexual exploitation of African-American slave women. Journal of Women’s History, 1(3), 45–74.
Jones, M. S. (2018). Birthright citizens: A history of race and rights in antebellum America. Cambridge University Press.
Jordan, W. D. (2013). White over black: American attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812. UNC Press Books.
Jordan, J., Patel, B., & Rapp, L. (2013). Domestic minor sex trafficking: A social work perspective on misidentification, victims, buyers, traffickers, treatment, and reform of current practice. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 23(3), 356–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.764198
Kabbash, L. A., & Ronis, S. T. (2021). Making a dent in human trafficking: Investigating the effects of social institutions and policies across 60 countries. Crime, Law and Social Change, 76(3), 321–336.
Kara, S. (2009). Sex trafficking: Inside the business of modern slavery. Columbia University Press.
Kara, S. (2018). Modern slavery. In Modern slavery. Columbia University Press.
Kirschner, K. C., Jr., Goodspeed, T. A., Baker, D. C., Chandrasekera, T., & Lynch, S. (2021). Human trafficking and health care providers: Legal requirements for reporting and education. One firm worldwide. Jones Day Firm.
Kiss, L., & Zimmerman, C. (2019). Human trafficking and labor exploitation: Toward identifying, implementing, and evaluating effective responses. PLoS Medicine, 16(1), e1002740. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002740
Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R. (2000). The pursuit of happiness and the realization of sympathy: Cultural patterns of self, social relations, and well-being. Culture and Subjective Well-Being, 1, 113–161.
Klein, H. S. (2010). The Atlantic slave trade. Cambridge University Press.
Knight, L., Xin, Y., & Mengo, C. (2021). A scoping review of resilience in survivors of human trafficking. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(4), 1048–1062.
Kumssa, A. (2015). Police corruption: A perspective on its nature and control. Donnish Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 1(1), 1–8.
Lathifah, A., & Noveria, M. (2014). The gender perspective on human trafficking in Indonesia. Journal Masyarakat dan Budaya, 16(3), 373–382.
Le, P. D. (2017). “Reconstructing a sense of self” trauma and coping among returned women survivors of human trafficking in Vietnam. Qualitative Health Research, 27(4), 509–519.
Litam, S. D. A. (2017). Human sex trafficking in America: What counselors need to know. The Professional Counselor, 7(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.15241/sdal.7.1.45
Logan, T. K., Walker, R., & Hunt, G. (2009). Understanding human trafficking in the United States. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10(1), 3–30.
Manning, P. (1990). Slavery and African life: Occidental, oriental, and African slave trades (Vol. 67). Cambridge University Press.
Martinez, O., & Kelle, G. (2014). Sex trafficking of LGBT individuals. International Law News, 1–4.
McCarthy, L. A. (2020). A gendered perspective on human trafficking perpetrators: Evidence from Russia. Journal of Human Trafficking, 6(1), 79–94.
Mumey, A., Sardana, S., Richardson-Vejlgaard, R., & Akinsulure-Smith, A. M. (2021). Mental health needs of sex trafficking survivors in New York City: Reflections on exploitation, coping, and recovery. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(2), 185.
Mustakeem, S. M. (2016). Slavery at sea: Terror, sex, and sickness in the middle passage. University of Illinois Press.
Nack, M. (2010). The next step: The future of New York state’s human trafficking law. Journal of Law and Policy, 18(2), 7.
National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments. (2021). Human trafficking America’s schools: What schools can do to prevent, respond, and help students to recover from human trafficking. Accessed from https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/sites/default/files/NCSSLE-2021HumanTraffickingGuide-508.pdf.
National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE). (2022). Addressing human trafficking in America’s schools. Accessed from https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/addressing-human-trafficking-americasschools
National Human Trafficking Hotline. (2020). National human trafficking hotline data report. National Human Trafficking Hotline. Accessed from https://humantraffickinghotline.org/sites/default/files/National%20Report%20For%202020.pdf.
Newton, P. J., Mulcahy, T. M., & Martin, S. E. (2008). Finding victims of human trafficking. University of Chicago, National Opinion Research Center.
Nichols, A., Edmond, T., & Heil, E. (Eds.). (2018). Social work practice with survivors of sex trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation. Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/nich18092
Office for Victims of Crime (2005). Human trafficking. Accessed from https://www.ncjrs.gov/ovc_archives/ncvrw/2005/pg5l.html
Ortega, J., Gordon, M., Gordon-Achebe, K., & Robitz, R. (2022). Survivors of human trafficking. In Diversity in action (pp. 33–56). Springer.
Pascual-Leone, A., Kim, J., & Morrison, O. P. (2017). Working with victims of human trafficking. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 47, 51–59.
Peters, A. W. (2015). Responding to human trafficking. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Rafferty, Y. (2013). Child trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: A review of promising prevention policies and programs. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83(4), 559–575.
Rafferty, Y. (2018). Mental health services as a vital component of psychosocial recovery for victims of child trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 88(3), 249–260.
Rawley, J. A., & Behrendt, S. D. (2005). The transatlantic slave trade: A history. University of Nebraska Press.
Reid, J. A., Baglivio, M. T., Piquero, A. R., Greenwald, M. A., & Epps, N. (2019). No youth left behind to human trafficking: Exploring profiles of risk. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(6), 704–715. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000362
Robitz, R., Gajaria, A., Stoklosa, H., Jones, E., & Baldwin, S. B. (2018). A young transgender woman with fatigue, malnutrition, and a previous suicide attempt. Psychiatric Annals, 48(3), 131–133.
Samson, C. (2020). The colonialism of human rights: Ongoing hypocrisies of Western liberalism. Wiley.
Savona, E. U., & Stefanizzi, S. (Eds.). (2007). Measuring human trafficking: Complexities and pitfalls. Springer.
Scott, J. T., Ingram, A. M., Nemer, S. L., & Crowley, D. M. (2019). Evidence-based human trafficking policy: Opportunities to invest in trauma-informed strategies. American Journal of Community Psychology, 64(3–4), 348–358. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12394
Sharapov, K., Hoff, S., & Gerasimov, B. (2019). Knowledge is power, ignorance is bliss: Public perceptions and responses to human trafficking. Anti-Trafficking Review, 13, 1–11.
Shelley, L. (2010). Human trafficking: A global perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Shelley, L. (2012). The relationship of drug and human trafficking: A global perspective. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 18(3), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-012-9175-1
Sigmon, J. (2008). Combating modern-day slavery: Issues in identifying and assisting victims of human trafficking worldwide. Victims and Offenders, 3, 245–257.
Smith, L., Vardaman, S. H., & Snow, M. (2009). The national report on domestic minor sex trafficking: America’s prostituted children.
Sorajjakool, S. (2013). Human trafficking in Thailand: Current issues, trends, and the role of the Thai government. Silkworm Books.
Stewart, D. E., & Gajic-Veljanoski, O. (2005). Trafficking in women: The Canadian perspective. CMAJ, 173(1), 25–26.
Swart, D. N. (2012). Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a Southern and South African context. Child Abuse Research in South Africa, 13(1), 62–73.
The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. (2016). Accessed from https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-andanalysis/glotip/2016_Global_Report_on_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf
Todres, J., & Diaz, A. (2021). COVID-19 and human trafficking—The amplified impact on vulnerable populations. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(2), 123–124.
Toney-Butler, T. J., Ladd, M., & Mittel, O. (2021). Human trafficking. StatPearls Publishing. Accessed from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430910/#_NBK430910_pubdet_
Trafficking Victims Protections Act (TVPA). (January 7, 2021). Accessed from https://www.state.gov/report-tocongress-on-2021-trafficking-in-persons-interim-assessment-pursuant-to-the-trafficking-victims-protection-act
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC]. (2016). Global report on trafficking in persons. Author. Accessed from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/data-and-analysis/glotip.html
United Nations Trafficking Protocol. (2000). Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children, supplementing the United Nations convention against transnational organized crime. Accessed from https://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=ind&mtdsg_no=xviii-12-a&chapter=18.
Venkatraman, B. A. (2003). Human trafficking: A guide to detecting, investigating, and punishing modern-day slavery. Police Chief, 70(12), 34–44.
Websdale, N. (2001). Policing the poor: From slave plantation to public housing. UPNE.
Weitzer, R. (2015). Human trafficking and contemporary slavery. Annual Review of Sociology, 41, 223–242.
Wheaton, E. M., Schauer, E. J., & Galli, T. V. (2010). Economics of human trafficking. International Migration, 48(4), 114–141.
White, D. G. (1999). Ar'n't I a woman?: Female slaves in the plantation south. W.W. Norton & Company.
Williams, L. M., & Frederick, M. E. (2009). Pathways into and out of commercial sexual victimization of children: Understanding and responding to sexually exploited teens (p. 73). University of Massachusetts Lowell.
Wolfe, B. M. (2018). The changing landscape of transgender sex work, pimping, and trafficking in Brazil. Transgender Sex Work and Society, 264–286.
Yakushko, O. (2009). Human trafficking: A review for mental health professionals. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 31(3), 158–167.
Zimmerman, Y. C. (2011). Christianity and human trafficking. Religion Compass, 5(10), 567–578.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Chaney, C.D., Lee-Johnson, N.M., Wooten, C.C., Doub, D.C., George Tilley, E.C. (2023). “The Hidden Figure of a Global Crime”: From Human Trafficking to Human Rights: Complexities and Pitfalls. In: Akande, A. (eds) Politics Between Nations. Contributions to International Relations. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24896-2_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24896-2_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-24895-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-24896-2
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)