Keywords

10.1 Introduction

Art may be defined as follows:

Art is generally understood as any activity or product done by people with a communicative or aesthetic purpose—something that expresses an idea, an emotion or, more generally, a world view. It is a component of culture, reflecting economic and social substrates in its design. It transmits ideas and values inherent in every culture across space and time. Its role changes through time, acquiring more of an aesthetic component here and a socio-educational function there [1].

Art involves “involves creative or imaginative talent expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas” [2].

Science may be defined as:

A systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe [3].

10.2 Developments in Art and Science

It is currently believed that scientific and engineering approaches to the natural world can be traced back to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 3000–1200 BCE [3] and is analyzable in many of the buildings (such pyramids, temples, monuments, tombs) which were constructed at this time and are still visible today. Also evident from this era are the vast number of cave paintings and art and decorative work in mosaics on the walls of such constructions. It clearly reached high levels of accomplishment in painting and sculpture which showed the style and symbolic representations of the period, many of which have lasted 4000 years and can be seen today (Figs. 10.1 and 10.2) [4]. Mathematics, astronomy and medicine shaped Greek ideas when natural events in the world were analyzed in terms of cause and effect.

Fig. 10.1
A photograph of the Egyptian funerary mask. It is made of gold, and semi-precious stones. It has a sculpture of a snake on the crown.

The funerary mask of Tutankhamun, 18th-dynasty Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh. The Mask of Tutankhamun; c. 1327 BC; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm (21 in); Egyptian Museum (Cairo). Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license

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Fig. 10.2
A collage of 6 photographs. From left to right 1. A predynastic figurine made of ivory. 2. A jar. 3. A bat figurine. 4. A jar made of diorite. 5. A knife made of flint. 6. A cosmetic palette.

Predynastic Collage. Artifacts of Egypt from the Prehistoric period, 4400–3100 BC: clockwise from top left: a Badarian ivory figurine, a Naqada jar, a Bat figurine, a cosmetic palette, a flint knife, and a diorite vase. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license

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At the same time as these artworks and sculptures were being produced, the Egyptians were also constructing the pyramids (Fig. 10.3). In order to construct such a building, it was necessary to have a level and horizontal base, and also know the size and weight of the stone blocks and how they could be fitted together, along with any alignment with external objects they required. Understanding the functions of surveying would have been necessary to some degree in order to produce plans for the construction, as well as the scheduling of the work. The margin of error was very low at 0.07%. In addition, the Great Pyramid was aligned with the cardinal points of the compass (north, south, east and west) to an accuracy of one fifteenth of a degree. Therefore, some of the fundamental elements of precision in science and engineering were known and understood at this time.

Fig. 10.3
A photograph of the great pyramid of Giza.

The Great Pyramid of Giza, constructed between c. 2580–2560 BC during the Old Kingdom period. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license. Attribution: L-BBE

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It is clear from these images that an understanding of the science and engineering aspects of construction were framed by design, form, and esthetics. It appears that art and science were working together in harmony, with each adding value to the other. They must have been magnificent constructions in their day. The outer layers of the pyramids have been removed since then, which has resulted in their coarser external appearance today, as in Fig. 10.3. The original casing stones are believed to be of white highly polished Tura limestone to reflect the sun’s rays. These would have given a smooth slope to the outside of the pyramids in contrast to the stepped appearance we see today.

10.3 Interrelationship of Art and Science

It is clear that scientific and artistic views of the world have been intertwined throughout history, and perhaps more so than is generally accepted today. A gradual separation may be observed after the academy was established and early universities divided study into different disciplines where students had to specialize. It was not long before a degree of antipathy developed between the earlier disciplines such as logic, grammar and rhetoric, and those that came later on such science and engineering. These were deemed to be applied knowledge and of lesser value and priority than fundamental knowledge. However, the events of the Scientific Revolution in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries revolutionized the understanding of the natural world by means of observation and experiment. It replaced the Greek view of nature that had held sway for 2000 years [5].

It was the advances in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry which transformed the views of society about the world. This led inevitably to the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when this understanding of nature was able to be harnessed by means of the developments in steam power, water power, mechanization, manufacturing, the smelting of iron ore, and architectural innovations to house the new businesses. Transportation was transformed by these new sources of energy and power [6].

It is often thought that science progresses by observation, analysis, and reason, whereas art advances through imagination, expression, and emotion. However, both involve aspects of communication, whether to validate the results of science, or to display the artistic work. In addition, artistic expression and scientific discovery have a common basis in creativity, perseverance, and insight. Many leading scientists have also been practitioners in the arts such as Einstein, Pasteur, Morse, Heisenberg, Planck, and Sidhof [7,8,9].

Science may be subdivided into the formal sciences (such as logic and mathematics), natural sciences (such as physical science, earth science, and life science), and social sciences (such as the social and cultural aspects of human behavior). Applied sciences include engineering and medicine [10].

Art may be subdivided into the visual arts, literature, architecture, cinema, music, theater and dance. Interactive media may also be included in a wider definition of art [11, 12].

Both science and art are involved in creation. Science may produce a model or description of the natural world and then make deductions from it. Art may depict a world view, or imagine an object not yet created. Therefore, the work of scientists and artists involves creativity.

Einstein said:

After a certain high level of technical skill is achieved, science and art tend to coalesce in aesthetics, plasticity, and form. The greatest scientists are always artists as well [13].

The reason why art is necessary to science because creativity involves imagination, and imagination is visualization. Things we are able to conceptualize, visualize or imagine in our mind are the things we can also create, if we have the tools to do so. Oftentimes, some of the greatest discoveries in science involved using some form of art [14].

10.4 The Contribution of Art to the Computer

Artists and designers have contributed to the development of computers. Particularly notable are Apple products with their sleek design, esthetics, usability, and use of color. Apple’s Mission Statement encapsulates the high priority they attach to these kind of attributes:

Bringing the best user experience to its customers through innovative hardware, software and services [15].

Apple’s vision statement is:

We believe that we are on the face of the earth to make great products and that’s not changing [15].

Artists have also used the computer to produce computer art (alternatively known as digital art). This can be any kind of image, multimedia, performance art, or gallery installation. The lines between traditional art and new media art have become blurred, as some artworks combine both of these components [16,17,18].

Computers can be used to produce realistic images for animations and films (e.g., Fig. 10.4). Artists often contribute to the design and manipulation of the graphics algorithms that produce such images—in order to obtain the overall style and form required.

Fig. 10.4
A computer-generated image of a scenery. It is a landscape of a sea meeting a mountain under the clear sky.

A procedurally generated photorealistic landscape created with Terragen. This has been used in creating CGI for movies. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license

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Visualization Data Artists

Computers are increasingly being used to analyze very large data sets, often involving scientific information, or the results of simulations. In these situations, the only useful way to interpret the data is to use visualization tools to present images or animations on a display. Given that colors and scale often shape the way such images are interpreted, artists are often involved so that the images are presented in an optimum way. Artists can make the significance of the data visible [19–21].

Computer Art

Artists may also use such data and visualizations to produce artworks in their own right [22]. Such data has become an art form in its own right [23].

10.5 Contribution of Art and Design to Research and Development Projects

As summarized in the Chapter on ‘Research and Development on Creativity’ in this volume:

Partnerships which have to deliver a product or service normally have partners with expertise in usability testing, user trials, human computer interaction, and art and design. In order for a product or service to be viable in the market-place it has to justify its existence and provide function, form, and value to the appropriate sector, as well as being able to appeal to potential users. This is where expertise in art and design can add value to the product. Such partners can add value in all areas of the EU’s projects, not just in culture and creativity. This is where a consortium with interdisciplinary expertise is able to make significant contributions in Europe and also internationally.

10.6 Conclusions

The contributions of the arts to the sciences have now come almost full circle. From the remarkable artworks and sculptures over 4000 years ago, to the sophisticated images and visualizations produced on the current supercomputers, the power, imagination, and creativity of the artist is clear to see. New tools have been created for the artist to use and the scientist has benefited from the artist’s creative input to assist in analyzing data in the form of images. Artists and scientists can work together in harmony once again.