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The Spread of a Sino-Tibetan Marvel

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The Global Circulation of Chinese Materia Medica, 1700–1949

Part of the book series: Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History ((MBSMH))

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Abstract

This chapter explores the emergence and spread of the caterpillar fungus in Chinese society by the end of the last imperial dynasty of China. While being written about widely and sought after, the caterpillar fungus sustained a social life in Chinese materia medica, natural history and commerce. This chapter pays close attention to human imagination of the caterpillar fungus’s transformative ability according to its Chinese interpreters from travellers and physicians to officials and poets. More broadly, it touches upon the politics of nature and acculturation of exotica in a Sino-Tibetan context.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Weikaihua Min, ‘Zhuya’, Shenbao, 7 July 1918, Sect. 14. The caterpillar fungus is mainly written as dongchong xiacao (winter worm summer grass), xiacao dongchong (summer grass winter worm) or chongcao (worm grass) in Chinese literature.

  2. 2.

    Guanshengyuan, ‘Xin Faming Dongchong [Xia]cao Ya Shangshi’, Shenbao, 1 January 1925, Sect. 19. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are my own.

  3. 3.

    For the history of Guanshengyuan, see Han Jian, Xian Guansheng He Guanshengyuan, Guangzhou: Guangdong Renmin Chubanshe, 2018.

  4. 4.

    Christian Henriot et al., The Population of Shanghai (1865–1953): A Sourcebook, Leiden: Brill, 2018, p. 95.

  5. 5.

    Hu Daojing, Xinwen Shi Shang De Xin Shidai, Shanghai: Shijie Shuju, 1946, p. 103.

  6. 6.

    Carla Nappi, ‘Winter Worm, Summer Grass: Cordyceps, Colonial Chinese Medicine, and the Formation of Historical Objects’, in Anne Digby et al. (eds.), Crossing Colonial Historiographies: Histories of Colonial and Indigenous Medicines in Transnational Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010, pp. 21–36.

  7. 7.

    Karma Chopel (ed.), bDud rTsi sMan Gyi’Khrungs dPe Legs bShad Nor Bu’i Phreng mDzes, Lhasa: Bod lJongs Mi dMangs dPe sKrun Khang, 1993, pp. 177–178; Daniel Winkler, ‘Yartsa Gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis) and the Fungal Commodification of Tibet’s Rural Economy’, Economic Botany, 2008, 62(3): 291–305; Alessandro Boesi and Francesca Cardi, ‘Cordyceps sinensis Medicinal Fungus: Traditional Use among Tibetan People, Harvesting Techniques, and Modern Uses’, HerbalGram, 2009, (83): 54–63; Ashok Kumar Panda, ‘Tracing Historical Perspective of Cordyceps sinensis - An Aphrodisiac in Sikkim Himālaya’, Indian Journal of History of Science, 2010, 45(2): 189–198.

  8. 8.

    Yumzhana Zhabon, ‘Desi Sangye Gyatsho (1653–1705) on the Succession of Medical Knowledge in the Tibetan Chang and Zur Schools’, Archiv Orientální, 2003, 71(3): 465–478; Theresia Hofer, Bodies in Balance: The Art of Tibetan Medicine, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2014, p. 142.

  9. 9.

    Desi Sangye Gyatso, dPal lDan gSo Ba Rig Pa’i Khog’Bugs Legs bShad Bai Durya’i Me Long Drang Srong dGyes Pa’i dGa’ sTon, Dharamsala: Bod gZhung sMan rTsis Khang, [1686] 1994, pp. 330–345. See also Desi Sangye Gyatso, Mirror of Beryl: A Historical Introduction to Tibetan Medicine, Gavin Kilty (trans.), Somerville: Wisdom Publications, [1686] 2010, pp. 293–309.

  10. 10.

    Zurkhar Nyamnyi Dorje, Man nGag bYe Ba Ring bSrel (Vol. 1), Gangtok: Sherab Gyaltsen Lama, [15th Century] 1977, pp. 347–349. For a collated version of the text, see Zurkhar Nyamnyi Dorje, Man nGag bYe Ba Ring bSrel, Pecin: Mirik Petrunkhang, [15th Century] 2005, pp. 308–310. For an English translation of the Tibetan record, see Daniel Winkler, ‘The Mushrooming Fungi Market in Tibet Exemplified by Cordyceps sinensis and Tricholoma matsutake’, Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, 2008, (4): 1–47, 32–36.

  11. 11.

    See, for example, Su Jing et al., Tang Xinxiu Bencao, Shang Zhijun (ed.), Hefei: Anhui Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, [659] 1981; Zhu Su, Jiuhuang Bencao, Ni Genjin (ed.), Beijing: Zhongguo Nongye Chubanshe, [1406] 2008.

  12. 12.

    Josef Kolmaš (ed.), A Genealogy of the Kings of Derge, Prague: Oriental Institute in Academica, Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1968, pp. 25–32; Leonard W. J. Van Der Kuijp, ‘Two Early Sources for the History of the House of Sde-dge’, The Journal of the Tibet Society, 1988, 8: 1–20; Liu Xianyi (ed.), Dege Xianzhi, Chengdu: Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe, 1995, pp. 45–46, 58–59. For the production of the caterpillar fungus in Dege county and elsewhere, see Daniel Winkler, ‘Yartsa Gunbu - Cordyceps sinensis: Economy, Ecology & Ethno-Mycology of a Fungus Endemic to the Tibetan Plateau’, Memorie della Società Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, 2005, 33(1): 69–85.

  13. 13.

    Rechung Rinpoche Jampal Kunzang (ed.), Tibetan Medicine: Illustrated in Original Texts, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976, pp. 43–45; Marianne Winder, ‘Tibetan Medicine Compared with Ancient and Mediaeval Western Medicine’, Bulletin of Tibetology, 1981, 17(1): 5–22; Susannah Deane, ‘rLung, Mind, and Mental Health: The Notion of ‘Wind’ in Tibetan Conceptions of Mind and Mental Illness’, Journal of Religion and Health, 2019, 58(3): 708–724.

  14. 14.

    Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim, ‘Tibetan ‘Wind’ and ‘Wind’ Illnesses: Towards a Multicultural Approach to Health and Illness’, Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 2010, 41(4): 318–324.

  15. 15.

    Frances Garrett, ‘Buddhism and the Historicising of Medicine in Thirteenth-Century Tibet’, Asian Medicine, 2006, 2(2): 204–224; Frances Garrett, Religion, Medicine and the Human Embryo in Tibet, London: Routledge, 2008, pp. 37–56; William A. McGrath, Buddhism and Medicine in Tibet: Origins, Ethics, and Tradition (PhD Dissertation), Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 2017.

  16. 16.

    Cong Chunyu (ed.), Dunhuang Zhongyiyao Quanshu, Beijing: Zhongyi Guji Chubanshe, 1994, pp. 15–19, 126–181; Zhen Yan and Vivienne Lo, ‘rTsa in the Tibetan Manuscripts from Dunhuang’, Asian Medicine, 2007, 3(2): 296–307; Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim, ‘Central Asian Mélange: Early Tibetan Medicine from Dunhuang’, in Brandon Dotson et al. (eds.), Scribes, Texts, and Rituals in Early Tibet and Dunhuang, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2013, pp. 53–60; Vivienne Lo and Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim, ‘Travelling Light: Sino-Tibetan Moxa-Cautery from Dunhuang’, in Vivienne Lo and Penelope Barrett (eds.), Imagining Chinese Medicine, Leiden: Brill, 2018, pp. 271–290; Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim, ‘The Silk Roads as a Model for Exploring Eurasian Transmissions of Medical Knowledge: Views from the Tibetan Medical Manuscripts of Dunhuang’, in Pamela H. Smith (ed.), Entangled Itineraries: Materials, Practices, and Knowledges across Eurasia, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019, pp. 47–62.

  17. 17.

    Vivienne Lo, ‘Pleasure, Prohibition, and Pain: Food and Medicine in Traditional China’, in Roel Sterckx (ed.), Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics, and Religion in Traditional China, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, pp. 163–185. The record of dahuang (rhubarb) in the Shennong Bencao Jing (Divine Husbandman’s Classic of Materia Medica) is an example, see Ma Jixing (ed.), Shennong Bencao Jing Jizhu, Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe, [c. first century AD] 1995, p. 338.

  18. 18.

    Peter V. Taberner, Aphrodisiacs: The Science and the Myth, London: Croom Helm, 1985, pp. 21–40; Jack R. Harlan, ‘Lettuce and the Sycomore: Sex and Romance in Ancient Egypt’, Economic Botany, 1986, 40(1): 4–15; Kenneth G Zysk, ‘Potency Therapy in Classical Indian Medicine’, Asian Medicine, 2005, 1(1): 101–118; Donald Harper, ‘Ancient and Medieval Chinese Recipes for Aphrodisiacs and Philters’, Asian Medicine, 2005, 1(1): 91–100; Michael Gagarin (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Vol. 1), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, pp. 125–127; Vivienne Lo and Eleanor Re’em, ‘Recipes for Love in the Ancient World’, in Geoffrey E. R. Lloyd and Jingyi Jenny Zhao (eds.), Ancient Greece and China Compared, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018, pp. 326–352; Shireen Hamza, ‘Medicine Beyond Doctors: Aphrodisiac Recipes in Tenth-Century Medicine and Cuisine’, Medieval Feminist Forum, 2018, 53(2): 91–113.

  19. 19.

    Yuthog Yonten Gonpo, bDud rTsi sNying Po Yan Lag brGyad Pa gSang Ba Man nGag Gi rGyud Ces Bya Ba bZhugs So, Pecin: Mi Rigs dPe sKrun Khang, [twelfth century] 2005, pp. 1483–1491. The chapter mentions two aphrodisiac prescriptions both using sparrows as containers for different medicinal substances. For identifications and descriptions of a few aphrodisiacs in the chapter, see Pasang Yonten Arya, Dictionary of Tibetan Materia Medica, Yonten Gyasto (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998, pp. 109, 121, 172, 254, 283.

  20. 20.

    Guan Peisheng and Cao Jiye, Xunshi: Daxing Zhenjun Wenhua Shi, Hong Kong: Huizhi Chuban Youxian Gongsi, 2010, pp. 102–104. Cf. Donald C. Steinkraus and James B. Whitfield, ‘Chinese Caterpillar Fungus and World Record Runners’, American Entomologist, 1994, 40(4): 235–239, 236.

  21. 21.

    Ming-Ming Zhao et al., ‘A Comparative Study on Shared-Use Medicines in Tibetan and Chinese Medicine’, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2019, 15: 43.

  22. 22.

    John Powers and David Templeman, Historical Dictionary of Tibet, Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, 2012, p. 181; Shaoping Li and Karl W. K. Tsim, ‘The Biological and Pharmacological Properties of Cordyceps sinensis, a Traditional Chinese Medicine That Has Broad Clinical Applications’, in Lester Packer et al. (eds), Herbal and Traditional Medicine: Molecular Aspects of Health, New York: Marcel Dekker, 2004, pp. 657–683; Daniel Winkler, ‘Caterpillar Fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) Production and Sustainability on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas’, Asian Medicine, 2009, 5(2): 291–316; John Holliday, ‘Cordyceps: a Highly Coveted Medicinal Mushroom’, in Dinesh Chandra Agrawal (eds.), Medicinal Plants and Fungi: Recent Advances in Research and Development, Singapore: Springer, 2017, pp. 59–92.

  23. 23.

    See, for example, Wang Ang, Bencao Beiyao, Chongqing: Chongqing Daxue Chubanshe, [1694?] 1996, p. 139; Wang Ang, Bencao Beiyao, in He Qinghu et al. (eds.), Zhonghua Yishu Jicheng (Book 5), Beijing: Zhongyi Guji Chubanshe, [1694?] 1997, p. 76; Wang Ang, Bencao Beiyao, in Xiang Changsheng (ed.), Wang Ang Yixue Quanshu, Beijing: Zhongguo Zhongyiyao Chubanshe, [1694?] 1999, p. 384.

  24. 24.

    Wang Shimin, ‘Bencao Beiyao He Zengding Bencao Beiyao Xiaokao’, Shanxi Zhongyi, 2006, 22(1): 41–42; Mao Yifei and Liu Gengsheng, ‘Bencao Beiyao Yanjiu Pingshu’, Anhui Zhongyi Xueyuan Xuebao, 2013, 32(3): 17–19.

  25. 25.

    Wu Yiluo, Bencao Congxin, Shanghai: Shanghai Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, [1757] 1982, p. 1.

  26. 26.

    Wu Yiluo, Bencao Congxin, p. 36.

  27. 27.

    Huang Tinggui et al., Sichuan Tongzhi, in Ji Yun (ed.), Wenyuange Siku Quanshu (Book 559), Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1735] 1983, pp. 91–92; Zhang Tingyu et al., Ming Shi, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, [1735] 2000, pp. 698–699; Zhao Er’xun et al., Qingshi Gao Jiaozhu, Zhu Chongsheng (ed.), Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1927] 1999, pp. 2485–2486.

  28. 28.

    For an example of nineteenth-century quotations from Wu Yiluo’s record of the caterpillar fungus, see Cheng Wenyou, Yishu, Hefei: Anhui Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, [1826] 1983, p. 1110.

  29. 29.

    Wang Datong et al., Shanghai Xianzhi (Vol. 11), Publisher Unknown, 1814, p. 111; Song Rulin et al., Songjiang Fuzhi, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 689), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1816] 2002, p. 262; Tang Guohai and Tang Jiaqi (eds.), Shanghai Tangshi Zupu, Shanghai: Private Print, 1834, pp. 72–73; Ying Baoshi et al., Shanghai Xianzhi, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu, Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [1871] 1975, pp. 1536–1537, 2467. Cf. Jiang Tingxi et al., ‘Hubu Zuoshilang Jiang Tingxi Deng Zoubao Gujin Tushu Jicheng Gaojun Zhuanghuang Yibu Chenglan Bing Qing Yuzhi Xunwen Zhe’, in Zhongguo Diyi Lishi Dang’an Guan (ed.), Yongzheng Chao Hanwen Zhupi Zouzhe Huibian (Book 33), Nanjing: Jiangsu Guji Chubanshe, [1726] 1991, pp. 569–570; Xiang Xuan, ‘Gujin Tushu Jicheng Guan Zuanxiu Renyuan Kaoshi’, Wen Shi, 2014, (4): 143–162.

  30. 30.

    The revision of the encyclopaedia was completed in 1719 and began to be printed in 1720. However, due to the Yongzheng emperor’s (r. 1723–1735) abomination of Chen Menglei, the printing work was discontinued; and the first complete printed version of the encyclopaedia came out as late as 1726, see Pei Qin, Gujin Tushu Jicheng Yanjiu, Beijing: Beijing Tushuguan Chubanshe, 2001, pp. 27–42; Xiang Xuan, ‘Qingdai Neifu Tong Huozi Kaolun’, Ziran Kexue Shi Yanjiu, 2013, 32(2): 254–262.

  31. 31.

    Liang Guozhi et al., Qinding Guozijian Zhi, in Ji Yun (ed.), Wenyuange Siku Quanshu (Book 600), Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1778] 1983, pp. 466–467; Li Zongfang et al., Qinding Guozijian Zhi, in Zhu Jiajin (ed.), Gugong Zhenben Congkan (Book 275), Haikou: Hainan Chubanshe, [1834] 2000, pp. 176–177; Xi Peng, Qingdai Guozijian Zhidu Yanjiu, Harbin: Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe, 2008, pp. 142–145.

  32. 32.

    Tang Bingjun, Wenfang Sikao Tushuo, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1113), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1778] 2002, pp. 393–394; Tang Guohai and Tang Jiaqi (eds.), Shanghai Tangshi Zupu, pp. 313–315. The book was also recorded to be entitled Qingli Yuzhao (Dim Candlelight).

  33. 33.

    Tang Bingjun, Wenfang Sikao Tushuo, p. 386. One cun was approximately 3.2 cm at that time, see Qiu Guangming (ed.), Zhongguo Lidai Duliangheng Kao, Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe, 1992, pp. 117, 520.

  34. 34.

    Zhao Xuemin, Bencao Gangmu Shiyi, p. 139. Tang Bingjun recorded Dong Hong as ‘Dong Yuwan Hong’. ‘Yuwan’ is the style name of ‘Dong Hong’. There existed such a way of recording ancient Chinese intellectuals’ names: putting one’s style name between his family name and given name. For example, Su and Shi are the family name and given name of the literatus Su Shi (1037–1101), whose style name is Zizhan or Dongpo. In premodern Chinese literature, he was occasionally recorded as Su Zizhan Shi, or Su Dongpo Shi, see Zhou Yinghe, Jingding Jiankang Zhi, in Ji Yun (ed.), Wenyuange Siku Quanshu (Book 489), Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1261] 1983, p. 445; Wu Weiye, Meicun Jiacang Gao, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1396), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [c. 1670] 2002, p. 231; Huang Zongxi et al., Songyuan Xue’an, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, [1838] 1986, pp. 590, 3302.

  35. 35.

    Tang Bingjun, Wenfang Sikao Tushuo, pp. 405–406; Tang Guohai and Tang Jiaqi (eds.), Shanghai Tangshi Zupu, pp. 74, 98.

  36. 36.

    Tang Bingjun, Wenfang Sikao Tushuo, p. 404.

  37. 37.

    Chen Qiyuan et al.., Qingpu Xianzhi, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu (Huazhong Difang, Book 16), Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [1877] 1970, pp. 988, 1242; Li Zhouwang et al., Mingqing Like Jinshi Timing Beilu, Taipei: Huawen Shuju, [c. 1904] 1969, p. 1740; Fang Zhaoying and Du Lianzhe, Zengjiao Qingchao Jinshi Timing Beilu, Beiping: Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1941, p. 57; Zhu Baojiong and Xie Peilin, Mingqing Jinshi Timing Beilu Suoyin, Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 1979, pp. 2682–2683; Jiang Qingbai (ed.), Qingchao Jinshi Timing Lu, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 2007, pp. 303, 308. Hu was his surname which he signed on his examination paper. However, he changed Hu as his original surname to Dong after he passed the national examination and became a metropolitan graduate. This is why in literature his name was also written as Hu Hong, Dong Huhong or Dong Hong. The phenomenon that examinees changed their surnames, given names or style names after passing the national examination was common in Qing China, see Jiang Jinxing, Qingdai Zhujuan Jicheng De Wenxian Jiazhi He Xueshu Jiazhi Yanjiu (PhD Dissertation), Hangzhou: Zhejiang University, 2004, pp. 67–68.

  38. 38.

    Gaines K. C. Liu, ‘The Silkworm and Chinese Culture’, Osiris, 1952, 10: 129–194; Dieter Kuhn, Science and Civilisation in China (Vol. 5, Part 9, Textile Technology), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 285–433.

  39. 39.

    Miao Xicheng et al., ‘Dongchong Xiacao De Jingyan Zhucun Fa Jieshao’, Shizhen Guoyi Guoyao, 2000, 11(10): 905.

  40. 40.

    Jean-Baptiste Du Halde (ed.), Lettres Édifiantes et Curieuses, Écrites des Missions Étrangères (Recueil 17), Paris: Nicolas Le Clerc, 1726, pp. 409–414.

  41. 41.

    Tang Bingjun, Wenfang Sikao Tushuo, p. 386.

  42. 42.

    Wei Litong, Huaifang Shiji, in Ji Xianlin (ed.), Siku Quanshu Cunmu Congshu Bubian (Book 4), Jinan: Qilu Shushe, [c. 1726] 2001, p. 170. For Wei Litong’s life and works, see Li Jianli et al., ‘Wei Yijie Jiqi Jiazu Muzhi Zongkao’, Wenwu Chunqiu, 1996, (4): 36–49; Ke Yuchun, Qingren Shiwen Ji Zongmu Tiyao, Beijing: Beijing Guji Chubanshe, 2001, p. 433; Ju Baozhao and Cao Ying (eds.), Qingdai Yilin Renwu Shiliao Jizuan, Shenyang: Liaoning Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, 2013, pp. 353–354.

  43. 43.

    For the history and importance of Dajianlu (i.e. Kangding) in Sino-Tibetan trade in the eighteenth through early twentieth centuries, see Yingcong Dai, The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009, pp. 183–184; Yudru Tsomu, ‘Guozhuang Trading Houses and Tibetan Middlemen in Dartsedo, the ‘Shanghai of Tibet’’, Cross-Currents, 2016, (19): 71–121; Shi Shuo and Zhou Libo, ‘‘Dajianlu’: Hanzang Jiaorong Xia De Diming, Chuanshuo Yu Xinyang’, Sixiang Zhanxian, 2019, 45(3): 33–45.

  44. 44.

    Wang Shirui, Jinzang Jicheng, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 737), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [c. 1733] 2002, p. 442. For Wang Shirui’s life and his trip to Tibet, see Han Yunqing, ‘Wang Shirui Jinzang Fengwang’, in Wang Zhexiu (ed.), Zhangqiu Wenshi Ziliao Xuanji, Zhangqiu: Zhengxie Zhangqiu Shi Wenshi Ziliao Yanjiu Weiyuanhui, 2001, pp. 118–122.

  45. 45.

    Lan Yong, Sichuan Gudai Jiaotong Luxian Shi, Chongqing: Xinan Shifan Daxue Chubanshe, 1989, p. 253; Zhang Liangcheng and Zhong Zhengliang (eds.), Yajiang Xianzhi, Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, 2000, pp. 356–358.

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    William W. Rockhill, Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892, Washington: The Smithsonian Institution, 1894, p. 361.

  47. 47.

    He Jinwen, Sichuan Fangzhi Kao, Changchun: Jilin Sheng Difangzhi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui and Jilin Sheng Tushuguan Xuehui, 1985, pp. 80–82; Xu Shiqun (ed.), Bashu Wenhua Dadian, Chengdu: Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe, 1998, p. 330; Zhao Xinyu, Qingdai Xizang Fangzhi Yanjiu, Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 2016, p. 253. This general chronicle of Sichuan was finalised in 1735 and printed the following year.

  48. 48.

    Huang Tinggui et al., Sichuan Tongzhi, p. 174.

  49. 49.

    Liu Weiyi, Zhongguo Difang Zhi, Beijing: Xinhua Chubanshe, 1991, pp. 16–18; Nan Jiangtao, ‘Zhongguo Jiuzhi Zhengli Yu Chuban Gaikuang’, Zhongguo Difang Zhi, 2017, (12): 42–50.

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    Zhu Shijia, ‘Zhongguo Difang Zhi De Qiyuan, Tezheng Jiqi Shiliao Jiazhi’, Shixueshi Ziliao, 1979, (2): 1–9; Huang Wei, ‘Fangzhi Yuanyuan Kaobian’, Zhonghua Wenshi Luncong, 1981, 3: 259–276; Chengzhi Wang, ‘Chinese Local Gazetteers: Evolution, Institutionalization and Digitization’, Journal of East Asian Libraries, 2009, (149): 45–54.

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    Kong Anguo and Kong Yingda (eds.), Shangshu Zhengyi, Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, [c. fifth century BC] 2000, pp. 158–205. See also Michael Loewe (ed.), Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1993, pp. 376–389.

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    Robin McNeal, ‘Spatial Models of the State in Early Chinese Texts: Tribute Networks and the Articulation of Power and Authority in Shangshu ‘Yu gong’ and Yi Zhoushu ‘Wang hui’’, in Martin Kern and Dirk Meyer (eds.), Origins of Chinese Political Philosophy, Leiden: Brill, 2017, pp. 475–495; Li Min, Social Memory and State Formation in Early China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018, pp. 399–401.

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    Zheng Xuemeng, Zhongguo Fuyi Zhidu Shi, Xiamen: Xiamen Daxue Chubanshe, 1994, pp. 251–255; Zhang Renxi and Feng Changlin, ‘Mingdai Tugong Kaolue’, Xueshu Luntan, 2003, (3): 99–102; Shan Peng, Songdai Tugong Chutan (MA Thesis), Baoding: Hebei Daxue, 2006; Pan Hao, ‘Qingdai Tugong Zhidu Jianlun’, Jianghan Luntan, 2015, (5): 105–108.

  54. 54.

    One collection of local chronicles, for example, enables us to observe this long-standing concern, see Guangdong Sheng Difang Shizhi Bangongshi (ed.), Guangdong Lidai Fangzhi Jicheng, Guangzhou: Lingnan Meishu Chubanshe, [fourteenth-twentieth centuries] 2006–2010.

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    Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia, Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005, pp. 87–89, 547–551; Robert K. Guy, Qing Governors and Their Provinces: The Evolution of Territorial Administration in China, 1644–1796, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010, pp. 183–351.

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    Roger Greatrex, ‘Tribute Missions from the Sichuan Borderlands to the Imperial Court (1400–1665)’, Acta Orientalia, 1997, 58: 75–151; James A. Millward and Laura J. Newby, ‘The Qing and Islam on the Western Frontier’, in Pamela K. Crossley et al. (eds.), Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006, pp. 113–134; He Xinhua, Qingdai Gongwu Zhidu Yanjiu, Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe, 2012, pp. 11–22, 37–102. For tribute medicine in China before the Qing dynasty, see He Bian, Know Your Remedies: Pharmacy and Culture in Early Modern China, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2020, pp. 49–73.

  57. 57.

    Huang Tinggui et al., Sichuan Tongzhi, p. 166.

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    Fuheng et al., Qinding Xiyu Tongwen Zhi, in Ji Yun (ed.), Wenyuange Siku Quanshu (Book 235), Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1763] 1983, p. 328.

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    Laura Hostetler, Qing Colonial Enterprise: Ethnography and Cartography in Early Modern China, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001, p. 49.

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    Morris Rossabi, ‘The Tea and Horse Trade with Inner Asia during the Ming’, Journal of Asian History, 1970, 4(2): 136–168; Zhang Lihong, ‘Lun Mingqing Chuanzang Maoyi’, Zhongguo Zangxue, 1993, (3): 83–92; Denis Twitchett and Frederick W. Mote (ed.), The Cambridge History of China (Vol. 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 241–258; Weirong Shen, ‘‘Accommodating Barbarians from Afar’: Political and Cultural Interactions between Ming China and Tibet’, Ming Studies, 2007, (1): 37–93; Martin Slobodník, ‘Tribute and Trade - Economic Exchanges between Central Tibet and Early Ming China’, Studia Orientalia Slovaca, 2013, 12(2): 227–246.

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    Zhao Er’xun et al., Qingshi Gao Jiaozhu, Zhu Chongsheng (ed.), Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1927] 1999, p. 8899; Qian Shifu, Qingdai Zhiguan Nianbiao, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1980, pp. 1384–1385. The official position of Governor of Sichuan and Shaanxi did not exist in the previous two years (1719–1720). Parennin’s memory or record of the year (i.e. three years ago [1720]) the Governor went to Beijing was slightly inaccurate.

  62. 62.

    Jean-Baptiste Du Halde (ed.), Lettres Édifiantes et Curieuses, Écrites des Missions Étrangères (Recueil 17), pp. 410–414.

  63. 63.

    He Xinhua, Qingdai Gongwu Zhidu Yanjiu, Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe, 2012, pp. 129–136; Li Shi, Qingdai Kangxi Chao Guanyuan Jingong Wenti Yanjiu (MA Thesis), Changchun: Dongbei Shifan Daxue, 2016, pp. 8–31.

  64. 64.

    Guan Xueling, ‘Qinggong Yiyao Laiyuan Kaosuo’, Ha’erbin Gongye Daxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexue Ban), 2007, 9(4): 19–26; Guan Xueling, Qingdai Gongting Yixue Yu Yixue Wenwu, Beijing: Zijincheng Chubanshe, 2008, pp. 110–139.

  65. 65.

    Chang Ming et al., Sichuan Tongzhi, Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1816] 1984, p. 3099.

  66. 66.

    Ding Baozhen, Ding Wencheng Gong Zougao, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 509), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1886] 2002, pp. 713–714. For Ding Baozhen’s life, see Tang Jiong, Ding Wencheng Gong Nianpu, in Zhou Heping (ed.), Beijing Tushuguan Cang Zhenben Nianpu (Book 164), Beijing: Beijing Tushuguan Chubanshe, [1913] 1999.

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    Guangxu, ‘Yu Jiao Lifan Yuan Benri Junji Dachen Mianfeng’, in Ye Zhiru et al., Guangxu Chao Shangyu Dang (Book 11), Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe, [1885] 1996, p. 113; Guangxu, ‘Yu Junji Dachen Ziji Sichuan Zongdu Ding Baozhen Zhe’, in Ye Zhiru et al., Guangxu Chao Shangyu Dang (Book 11), Guilin: Guangxi Shifan Daxue Chubanshe, [1885] 1996, p. 115; Shixu et al., Qing Shilu (Book 54), Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, [1921] 1987, pp. 918, 937–938, 941. On 25 June 1885, the Amban of Tibet was Selenge, assisted by Chonggang, see Josef Kolmaš, The Ambans and Assistant Ambans of Tibet: A Chronological Study, Prague: Oriental Institute, 1994, pp. 58–60; Zeng Guoqing and Huang Weizhong (eds.), Qingdai Zangzu Lishi, Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue Chubanshe, 2012, p. 471.

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    Ding Baozhen, Ding Wencheng Gong Zougao, pp. 748–750. See also Anonymous, ‘Guangxu Shi’er Nian Siyue Chuyi Ri Jingbao Quanlu’, Shenbao, 13 May 1886, Sect. 9. One liang was approximately 37.3 grams at that time, see Qiu Guangming (ed.), Zhongguo Lidai Duliangheng Kao, pp. 512–513, 520. The caterpillar fungus is listed between the medicinal plants Huanglian (Coptis chinensis Franch.) and Zhimu (Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge), both of which had been used as medicines long before the 1880s, see, for example, Li Shizhen, Bencao Gangmu, pp. 506–508, 537–542.

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    Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin, Science and Civilisation in China (Vol. 5, Part 1, Paper and Printing), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, pp. 184–194; Cynthia J. Brokaw, ‘On the History of the Book in China’, in Cynthia J. Brokaw and Kai-Wing Chow (eds.), Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005, pp. 3–54; Suyoung Son, Writing for Print: Publishing and the Making of Textual Authority in Late Imperial China, Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2018, pp. 127–161; Christine Moll-Murata, State and Crafts in the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018, pp. 213–291.

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    Cao Lunbin et al., Yazhou Fuzhi, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu (Xibu Difang, Book 28), Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [1739] 1969, p. 301.

  71. 71.

    Though this book did not indicate the origin of the record, Lu Huazhu, author of the preface, pointed out that it did refer to the general chronicle of Sichuan, see Ma Jie and Sheng Shenzu, Weizang Tuzhi, in Zhang Yuxin (ed.), Zhongguo Xizang Ji Gan Qing Chuan Dian Zang Qu Fangzhi Huibian (Book 1), Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanshe, [1792] 2003, pp. 293, 392.

  72. 72.

    Yao Ying, Kangyou Jixing, Hefei: Huangshan Shushe, [c. 1846] 1990, p. 484.

  73. 73.

    Cheng Wenyou, Yishu, Hefei: Anhui Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, [1826] 1983, p. 1110; Zhao Xuemin, Bencao Gangmu Shiyi, p. 139.

  74. 74.

    Xiao Tenglin, Xizang Jianwen Lu, in Zhang Yuxin (ed.), Zhongguo Xizang Ji Gan Qing Chuan Dian Zang Qu Fangzhi Huibian (Book 2), Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanshe, [1746] 2003, p. 81; Zhang Hai, Xijiang Jishu, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu (Xibu Difang, Book 34), Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [c. 1749] 1968, p. 27.

  75. 75.

    Anonymous, Dajianlu Zhilue, in Zhang Yuxin (ed.), Zhongguo Xizang Ji Gan Qing Chuan Dian Zang Qu Fangzhi Huibian (Book 40), Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanshe, [c. 1794] 2003, p. 20. For the compiler and date of this chronicle, see Zhao Xinyu, ‘Qianlong Dajianlu Zhilue Zhuzhe Ji Ziliao Laiyuan Kao’, Xinan Minzu Daxue Xuebao (Renwen Sheke Ban), 2003, 24(9): 49–52.

  76. 76.

    Chen Denglong, Litang Zhilue, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu (Xibu Difang, Book 29), Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [1807] 1970, pp. 48, 91–92.

  77. 77.

    For racism or ethnocentrism in Chinese culture and history, see Q. Edward Wang, ‘History, Space, and Ethnicity: The Chinese Worldview’, Journal of World History, 1999, 10(2): 285–305; Frank Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015, pp. 1–78. Cf. James Leibold, Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism: How the Qing Frontier and Its Indigenes Became Chinese, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 19–25.

  78. 78.

    Anonymous, Xizang Ji, in Wang Yunwu (ed.), Congshu Jicheng Chubian, Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, [c. 1794] 1936, p. 51; Xu Hongpan, Fangyu Kaozheng (Book 29), Jining: Panshi Huajiange [1837] 1918, p. 100.

  79. 79.

    Binliang, Baochong Zhai Shiji, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1508), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1847] 2002, p. 478. Zanma’er Dong was also called Zanmala Dong, located not far from the Bolanggong Mountain in Sichuan, see Wen Guanghan (ed.), Litang Xianzhi, Chengdu: Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe, 1996, pp. 164–165.

  80. 80.

    Tongshengge Shufang (ed.), Manhan Jinshen Quanshu, in Feng Lisheng and Geng Xiangxin (eds.), Qingdai Jinshen Lu Jicheng (Book 1), Zhengzhou: Daxiang Chubanshe, [1760] 2008, p. 398; Chang Ming et al., Sichuan Tongzhi, Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1816] 1984, p. 2434.

  81. 81.

    Qin Wuyu, Wenjian Banxiang Lu, in Wang Deyi (ed.), Congshu Jicheng Xubian (Book 24), Taipei: Xin Wenfeng Chuban Gongsi, [c. 1783] 1989, p. 506. For Qin Wuyu’s official career in Sichuan, see Zeng Guoquan et al., Shanxi Tongzhi, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 645), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1892] 2002, p. 500.

  82. 82.

    Chang Ming et al., Sichuan Tongzhi, Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1816] 1984, pp. 585–586.

  83. 83.

    Long Bai, Maiyao Lianzhu: Yaoxing Kao, in Gan Zuwang et al. (eds.), Wuzhong Yiji (Fangyao Lei), Nanjing: Jiangsu Keji Chubanshe, [1795] 1993, p. 686.

  84. 84.

    Zhu Feng mentioned the caterpillar fungus in his Ganyuan Xiaozhi (Notes of Tangerine Garden, c. 1780), which probably has never been published. A manuscript of this text is now preserved at Nanjing Library. For the record and a textual study of the manuscript, see Di Lu, ‘Nantu Cang Ganyuan Xiaozhi Chaoben Chutan’, Changjiang Xueshu, 2014, (2): 88–93.

  85. 85.

    Liu Tingshu et al., Dajian Ting Zhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Sichuan Fuxianzhi Ji, Book 66), Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [c. 1904] 1992, p. 990. For the date of this text, see Sichuan Sheng Difang Zhi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui (ed.), Sichuan Shengzhi: Chuban Zhi, Chengdu: Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe, 2001, p. 584.

  86. 86.

    Xu Ke, Qingbai Leichao, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, [1916] 1984, pp. 2336–2337.

  87. 87.

    Zhu Zhang, Guanshu Tang Shiji, in Ji Xianlin (ed.), Siku Quanshu Cunmu Congshu (Jibu, Book 258), Jinan: Qilu Shushe, [c. 1759] 1997, p. 701. For Zhu Zhang’s official career in Jiangyou, see Peng Zhi, Jiangyou Xianzhi, in Zhu Jiajin (ed.), Gugong Zhenben Congkan (Book 206), Haikou: Hainan Chubanshe, [1727] 2001, pp. 21, 35–36; Fang Ping, Zhu Zhang Rushu Ji Shuzhong Shige Yanjiu (MA Thesis), Chengdu: Sichuan Shifan Daxue, 2015, pp. 1–15.

  88. 88.

    Zhao Xuemin, Bencao Gangmu Shiyi, p. 139. Zhao’s record of the caterpillar fungus was often quoted by later authors, see, for example, Xu Jinyuan, Chuanbian Youji, Beijing: Jingcheng Yinshuju, 1932, p. 100.

  89. 89.

    Li Xinheng, Jinchuan Suoji, in Wang Yunwu (ed.), Congshu Jicheng Chubian, Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1790] 1936, p. 64. Li’s record was also often quoted by later authors, see, for example, Zhang Xiangwen, Nanyuan Conggao, in Minguo Congshu Bianji Weiyuanhui (ed.), Minguo Congshu (Collection 5), Shanghai, Shanghai Shudian, [1929] 1996, pp. 829–830. Li Xinheng used to hold the position as assistant magistrate of Xichang in Sichuan, see Wang Tao, Yingruan Zazhi, Taipei: Wenhai Chubanshe, [c. 1871] 1969, p. 129.

  90. 90.

    Chang Ming et al., Sichuan Tongzhi, Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1816] 1984, p. 2467.

  91. 91.

    Chen Yong, Chusanxuan Congtan (Book 2, Vol. 4), Suzhou: Publisher Unknown, [1804] 1864, pp. 27–29.

  92. 92.

    Ding Yingkui et al., Maozhou Zhi, in Zhu Jiajin (ed.), Gugong Zhenben Congkan (Book 221), Haikou: Hainan Chubanshe, [1794] 2001, p. 213; Qian Zhaotang, Batang Zhilue, in Zhang Yuxin (ed.), Zhongguo Xizang Ji Gan Qing Chuan Dian Zang Qu Fangzhi Huibian (Book 39), Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanshe, [c. 1844] 2003, p. 510; Deng Renyuan et al., Huili Zhouzhi, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu (Huazhong Difang, Book 367), Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [1874] 1976, p. 1052; Gu Peiyuan et al., Yanyuan Xianzhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Sichuan Fuxianzhi Ji, Book 70), Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1894] 1992, p. 735; Zhang Ji, Dingzhan Ting Zhilue, in Zhang Yuxin (ed.), Zhongguo Xizang Ji Gan Qing Chuan Dian Zang Qu Fangzhi Huibian (Book 40), Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanshe, [c. 1897] 2003, p. 106.

  93. 93.

    Tang Zonghai, Yiyi Tongshuo, Qiu Xiaobo (ed.), Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [c. 1897] 1992, p. 118.

  94. 94.

    Ma Zhongliang et al., Yuesui Ting Quanzhi, in Lin Chaomin et al. (ed.), Xinan Xijian Fangzhi Wenxian (Book 48), Lanzhou: Lanzhou Daxue Chubanshe, [1906] 2003, p. 775; Liu Guangyong, Chonghuatun Zhilue, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Sichuan Fuxianzhi Ji, Book 66), Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1912] 1992, p. 959.

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    Xie Shenglun, Dianqian Zhilue, Guiyang: Guizhou Renmin Chubanshe, [1763] 2008, p. 116.

  96. 96.

    Wu Ziqing et al., Xinxiu Zhongdian Ting Zhishu, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Yunnan Fuxianzhi Ji, Book 82), Nanjing: Fenghuang Chubanshe, [1884] 2009, p. 519; Chen Zonghai et al., Lijiang Fuzhi, Lijiang: Zhengxie Lijiang Shi Gucheng Qu Weiyuan Hui, [1895] 2005, p. 138. In the nineteenth century, Adunzi belonged to Weixi, see Deqin Xianzhi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui (ed.), Deqin Xianzhi, Kunming: Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe, 1997, p. 2.

  97. 97.

    Long Yun et al., Xinzuan Yunnan Tongzhi (Book 2), Kunming: Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe, [1944] 2007, pp. 45–48.

  98. 98.

    Li Xiling et al., Pu’er Fuzhi, Pu’er: Xueshu, 1850, p. 244.

  99. 99.

    Chen Zonghai et al., Lijiang Fuzhi, Lijiang: Zhengxie Lijiang Shi Gucheng Qu Weiyuan Hui, [1895] 2005, p. 138.

  100. 100.

    Zhao Xuemin, Bencao Gangmu Shiyi, p. 140.

  101. 101.

    Wu Yiluo’s words on the caterpillar fungus, indirectly quoted from Wu Qijun’s Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao (Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Entities of Plants, c. 1847), were invoked in support of local production of the caterpillar fungus, see Liu Xianshi et al., Guizhou Tongzhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Guizhou Fuxianzhi Ji, Book 9), Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1948] 2016, p. 167.

  102. 102.

    Qishiyi, Xiyu Wenjian Lu, in Shi Lizhen et al. (eds.), Qing Chaoben Lin Zexu Deng Xibu Jixing Sanzhong, Beijing: Quanguo Tushuguan Wenxian Suowei Fuzhi Zhongxin, [1777] 2001, p. 201. This text has different versions under different titles, which also contain the record of the caterpillar fungus. For example, see Qishiyi, Yiyu Suotan, Manuscript Preserved at the Waseda University Library, [1777] Undated, p. 12; Qishiyi, Xiyu Zongzhi, in Zhongguo Xibei Wenxian Congshu Bianji Weiyuanhui (ed.), Xibei Xijian Fangzhi Wenxian (Book 60), Lanzhou: Lanzhou Guji Shudian, [1777] 1990, p. 19.

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    Wang Dashu, Xizheng Lu, in Liu Jiaping and Zhou Jiming (eds.), Guojia Tushuguan Cang Guji Zhenben Youji Congkan (Book 14), Beijing: Xianzhuang Shuju, [c. 1791] 2003, pp. 7178–7179; He Ying, Sanzhou Jilue, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu (Xibu Difang, Book 11), Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [c. 1806] 1968, p. 297. In Wang Dashu’s rhapsody, the caterpillar fungus is also called summer flower winter worm. But in He Ying’s quotation, slightly different from the original rhapsody, the word flower is written as grass. For the date and authorship of the rhapsody, see Wu Huafeng and Zhou Yanling, ‘‘Tianshan Yuzhe’ Wang Dashu De Qianshu Shengya Yu Shiwen Chuangzuo’, Xiyu Yanjiu, 2014, (4): 115–122.

  104. 104.

    Li Cheng, Wanshan Gangmu, in Luo Lin (ed.), Siku Weishoushu Jikan (Collection 9, Book 6), Beijing: Beijing Chubanshe, [c. 1890] 2000, pp. 422–423. Licheng was appointed the assistant magistrate of Yaozhou in 1813. For an introduction to his life and Wanshan Gangmu (Compendium of Thousands of Mountains), see Sun Donghu, ‘Li Cheng Yu Wanshan Gangmu’, Zhongguo Lishi Dili Luncong, 1998, (2): 187–196.

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    Anonymous, Kuche Zhilizhou Xiangtu Zhi, in Ma Dazheng et al. (eds.), Xinjiang Xiangtuzhi Gao, Urumchi: Xinjiang Renmin Chubanshe, [1908] 2010, p. 321.

  106. 106.

    Yuan Dahua et al., Xinjiang Tuzhi, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 649), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1911] 2002, p. 262; Yuan Dahua et al., Xinjiang Tuzhi, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 650), p. 90. The original name of the present-day Zhaosu, Ili is Gake Chaha’er Hai. For related geographical identification, see He Ling (ed.), Xiyu Lishi Wenhua Dacidian, Urumqi: Xinjiang Renmin Chubanshe, 2012, p. 375.

  107. 107.

    Wu Qijun, Zhiwu Mingshi Tukao, Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, [c. 1847] 1957, p. 242.

  108. 108.

    Zhao Er’xun et al., Qingshi Gao Jiaozhu, Zhu Chongsheng (ed.), Taipei: Taiwan Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1927] 1999, p. 9858; Qian Shifu, Qingdai Zhiguan Nianbiao, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1980, pp. 1687–1689; Wei Xiumei, Qingji Zhiguan Biao, Taipei: Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, 2002, pp. 378, 442.

  109. 109.

    Qi Xueqiu, Jianwen Xubi, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1181), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1873] 2002, p. 397. Qi Xueqiu misrecorded the title of Wu Qijun’s botanical work as Bencao Tushuo (Illustrated Herbal).

  110. 110.

    Li Zuoxian, Wulu Bitan, Lijin: Printed by Li Zuoxian, 1875, p. 288.

  111. 111.

    He Fuhai et al., Xinning Xianzhi, Taipei: Taiwan Xuesheng Shuju, [1893] 1968, p. 346.

  112. 112.

    David N. Pegler et al., ‘The Chinese ‘Caterpillar Fungus’’, Mycologist, 1994, 8(1): 3–5; Zang Mu and Noriko Kinjo, ‘Dongchong Xiacao Moshi Biaoben De Yanjiu’, Acta Botanica Yunnanica, 1996, 18(2): 205–208; Song Liren (ed.), Zhonghua Bencao: Zangyao Juan, Shanghai: Shanghai Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, 2002, pp. 147–148; Liang Zongqi (ed.), Zhongguo Zhenjun Zhi (Vol. 32), Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe, 2007, pp. 125–126.

  113. 113.

    Yuan Dahua et al., Xinjiang Tuzhi, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 650), p. 90.

  114. 114.

    Liang Zongqi (ed.), Zhongguo Zhenjun Zhi (Vol. 32), Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe, 2007, pp. 89–90, 92, 130, 133, 140.

  115. 115.

    Cf. Michael Finkel, ‘Tibetan Gold: A Medicinal Fungus Highly Prized in China is Fueling a Boom on the Tibetan Plateau’, National Geographic, 2012, (8): 114–129.

  116. 116.

    Wu Zhengyi and Li Xiwen (eds.), Zhongguo Zhiwu Zhi (Vol. 66), Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe, 1977, pp. 18–20; Luo Guihuan, ‘Ganluzi De Zaipei Qiyuan He Chuanbo’, Zhongguo Nongshi, 2014, (6): 21–24.

  117. 117.

    For example, see Bernard Capp, When Gossips Meet: Women, Family, and Neighbourhood in Early Modern England, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003; Pamela J. Stewart and Andrew Strathern, Witchcraft, Sorcery, Rumors and Gossip, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004; Lindsay Porter, Popular Rumour in Revolutionary Paris, 1792–1794, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.

  118. 118.

    Wang Dashu, Xizheng Lu, in Liu Jiaping and Zhou Jiming (eds.), Guojia Tushuguan Cang Guji Zhenben Youji Congkan (Book 14), Beijing: Xianzhuang Shuju, [c. 1791] 2003, pp. 7180, 7188–7195.

  119. 119.

    Zhang Shu, Suyang Tang Wenji, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1506), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1837] 2002, p. 444.

  120. 120.

    For a detailed chronicle of Zhang Shu’s life and writings, see Zhang Xiaopeng, Zhang Shu Nianpu, Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 2017.

  121. 121.

    Zhang Shu, Suyang Tang Shiji, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1506), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1842] 2002, p. 270.

  122. 122.

    Zhongzhen Zhao et al., ‘The Formation of daodi Medicinal Materials’, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2012, 140(3): 476–481. Cf. Liu Wentai et al., Bencao Pinhui Jingyao, Cao Hui (ed.), Beijing: Huaxia Chubanshe, [1505] 2004, pp. 95, 775–789.

  123. 123.

    Wu Yiluo, Bencao Congxin, p. 36.

  124. 124.

    Yu Picheng et al., Enping Xianzhi, in Huang Chengzhu (ed.), Zhongguo Fangzhi Congshu (Huanan Difang, Book 184), Taipei: Chengwen Chubanshe, [1934] 1974, p. 214.

  125. 125.

    Duan Pengrui, Yanjing Xiangtu Zhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Xizang Fuxianzhi Ji), Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1909] 1995, p. 405.

  126. 126.

    Liu Zanting, Jiali Xianzhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Xizang Fuxianzhi Ji), Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [c. 1912] 1995, p. 62; Liu Zanting, Chaya Xian Yuzhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Xizang Fuxianzhi Ji), p. 201; Liu Zanting, Yanjing Xianzhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Xizang Fuxianzhi Ji), p. 385; Liu Zanting, Jiuzu Xianzhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Xizang Fuxianzhi Ji), p. 515; Liu Zanting, Enda Xianzhi, in Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Xizang Fuxianzhi Ji), p. 550. Liu Zanting had never published these chronicles during his life; he also did not indicate when they were finalised, see Yang Changhong, ‘Liu Zanting Canggao Yanjiu’, Zhongguo Zangxue, 2006, (4): 34–42. For the dating of these chronicles (c. 1912), see Peng Shenhong, Qingdai Minguo Xizang Fangzhi Yanjiu (MA Thesis), Chengdu: Sichuan Shifan Daxue, 2008, pp. 44–45.

  127. 127.

    Wang Shixiong, Guiyan Lu, in Sheng Zengxiu (ed.), Wang Mengying Yixue Quanshu, Beijing: Zhongguo Zhongyiyao Chubanshe, [1857] 1999, p. 447.

  128. 128.

    Li Xinheng, Jinchuan Suoji, p. 64; Ma Zhongliang et al., Yuesui Ting Quanzhi, in Lin Chaomin et al. (ed.), Xinan Xijian Fangzhi Wenxian (Book 48), Lanzhou: Lanzhou Daxue Chubanshe, [1906] 2003, p. 775.

  129. 129.

    For the life and writings of Wang Shixiong, see Wang Hui and Wang Guanglei, ‘Wang Mengying Zunian Kao’, Zhejiang Zhongyi Zazhi, 2015, (12): 925; Zhang Lei, Wang Mengying, Beijing: Zhongguo Zhongyiyao Chubanshe, 2017, pp. 1–48.

  130. 130.

    Gianna Pomata, ‘Malpighi and the Holy Body: Medical Experts and Miraculous Evidence in Seventeenth-Century Italy’, Renaissance Studies, 2007, 21(4): 568–586; Mei Zhan, Other-Worldly: Making Chinese Medicine through Transnational Frames, Durham: Duke University Press, 2009, pp. 91–118.

  131. 131.

    Lei Xiao, Leigong Paozhi Lun, Shang Zhijun (ed.), Hefei: Anhui Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, [c. fifth century] 1991, p. 124. For the problematic date of this text, see Zheng Jinsheng et al. (eds.), Dictionary of the Ben Cao Gang Mu (Vol. 3), Oakland: University of California Press, 2018, p. 254. For an eleventh-century description of the flower on cicada, see Song Qi, Yibu Fangwu Lueji, Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, [1057] 1936, pp. 14–15.

  132. 132.

    Su Song, Bencao Tujing, Shang Zhijun (ed.), Hefei: Anhui Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, [1061] 1994, p. 484.

  133. 133.

    Modern mycology holds the view that the flower on cicada refers to Cordyceps sobolifera (distributed in Anhui and Sichuan) or Cordyceps cicadae (distributed in Zhejiang, Guangdong, Fujian and Anhui), see Xing Xingqiu, ‘Da Chancao He Xiao Chancao De Fenlei’, Weishengwu Xuebao, 1975, 15(1): 21–26; Liang Zongqi (ed.), Zhongguo Zhenjun Zhi (Vol. 32), Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe, 2007, pp. 77–78, 127–128.

  134. 134.

    Chen Denglong, Litang Zhilue, p. 91.

  135. 135.

    Tang Zonghai, Bencao Wenda, in Wang Mimi and Li Lin (eds.), Tang Rongchuan Yixue Quanshu, Beijing: Zhongguo Zhongyiyao Chubanshe, [1893] 1999, p. 538.

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    Tang Bingjun, Wenfang Sikao Tushuo, p. 386. One jin was approximately 596.8 grams at that time, see Qiu Guangming (ed.), Zhongguo Lidai Duliangheng Kao, pp. 512–513, 520.

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    Ma Jixing (ed.), Shennong Bencao Jing Jizhu, p. 45. For the history of ginseng, see Steven Foster, ‘Towards an Understanding of Ginseng Adulteration: The Tangled Web of Names, History, Trade, and Perception’, HerbalGram, 2016, (111): 36–57; Jiang Zhushan, Renshen Diguo: Qingdai Renshen De Shengchan, Xiaofei Yu Yiliao, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Daxue Chubanshe, 2015.

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    Anonymous, Huang Di Neijing Suwen Jiaozhu, Guo Aichun (ed.), Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe, [c. first century BC] 1992, pp. 12–13, 75–76, 149–149; Paul U. Unschuld and Hermann Tessenow, Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: An Annotated Translation of Huang Di’s Inner Classic - Basic Questions, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011, pp. 39–40, 98–99, 178. For the concept and function of qi in early Chinese medicine, see Elisabeth Hsu, ‘Outward Form (xing) and Inward Qi: The ‘Sentimental Body’ in Early Chinese Medicine’, Early China, 2009, 32: 103–124. The Chinese character shen in early Chinese medicine sometimes denotes testicles rather than the kidney, see Donald J. Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts, London: Kegan Paul International, 1998, p. 73.

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    Anonymous, Shanhai Jing Jiaozhu, Yuan Ke (ed.), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [c. fourth century BC] 1980, pp. 15, 30, 63–64. Cf. Richard E. Strassberg, A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures from the Guideways through Mountains and Seas, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002, pp. 93, 100, 117–118.

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    Lu Zuofan, Yuexi Ouji, in Ji Xianlin (ed.), Siku Quanshu Cunmu Congshu (Shibu, Book 128), Jinan: Qilu Shushe, [late seventeenth century] 1996, p. 431. For Shen’s life, see Xu Guixia, Shen Haori Ci Yanjiu (MA Thesis), Shenyang: Liaoning Daxue, 2015, pp. 4–12.

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    Anonymous, Xia Xiaozheng Jingwen Jiaoshi, Xia Weiying (ed.), Beijing: Nongye Chubanshe, [c. fifth century BC] 1981, pp. 12, 35, 45, 58, 62–63.

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    Wang Peixun, Tingyu Lou Suibi, Chengdu: Bashu Shushe, [1845] 1987, p. 349. For his life and writings, see Wang Zhimin (ed.), Shandong Zhongyao Lishi Renwu (Vol. 4), Jinan: Shandong Renmin Chubanshe, 2009, pp. 17–19.

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    Kawaguchi Ekai, Nishikura Ryokō Ki (Vol. 1), Tokyo: Hirobumi Kan, 1904, p. 87; Kawaguchi Ekai, Nishikura Ryokō Ki (Vol. 2), Tokyo: Hirobumi Kan, 1904, pp. 345–360. See also Kawaguchi Ekai, Three Years in Tibet, London: Theosophical Publishing Society, 1909, pp. 76, 641–654.

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    Itō Tokutarō, ‘Notes on Some Himalayan Plants Collected by the Rev. Keikai Kawaguchi in 1902’, The Botanical Magazine, 1903, 17(200): 157–159; Tōkyō Bijutsu Gakkō Kōyūkai, Kawaguchi Ekai Shi Shōrai Nishikura Hin Zuroku, Tokyo: Gahōsha, 1904.

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    Itō Tokutarō, ‘Dongchong Xiaocao Shuo’, anonymous (trans.), Nongxue Bao, 1903, (231): 4–8.

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    Wang Xuequan, Chongqing Tang Suibi, Nanjing: Jiangsu Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, [1808] 1986, p. 98. Wang did not indicate the origin of the words quoted in his book.

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    Zhang Nan, Yimen Banghe, Beijing: Zhongyi Guji Chubanshe, [1829] 1987, p. 115.

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    Tang Zonghai, Bencao Wenda, p. 538. For Tang’s life, see Pi Guoli, Jindai Zhongyi De Shenti Guan Yu Sixiang Zhuanxing: Tang Zonghai Yu Zhongxi Yi Huitong Shidai, Beijing: Shenghuo Dushu Xinzhi Sanlian Shudian, 2008, pp. 37–53.

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    Tang Zonghai, Yiyi Tongshuo, p. 66. For the description of the forty-fourth hexagram (called gou) in the Book of Changes, see Anonymous, Zhouyi Zhengyi, Wang Bi and Kong Yingda (eds.), Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, 2000, pp. 215–220. For the relationship between yinyang and the Book of Changes, see Robin R. Wang, Yinyang: The Way of Heaven and Earth in Chinese Thought and Culture, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 62–74.

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    Xu Naigu, Ruishao Xuan Shichao, in Qingdai Shiwenji Huibian Bianji Weiyuanhui (ed.), Qingdai Shiwenji Huibian (Book 548), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [c. 1835] 2010, p. 71. See also Yang Zhongyi, Xueqiao Shihua Xuji, Beijing: Beijing Guji Chubanshe, [1917] 1991, p. 469–470. For Xu’s life and writings, see Li Yang, Xu Naigu Yu Ruishao Xuan Shichao Yanjiu (MA Thesis), Urumqi: Xinjiang Shifan Daxue, 2011, pp. 4–33.

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    Song Xianxi, Naileng Tan, in Zhang Yinpeng (ed.), Qing Shihua Sanbian (Book 6), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1829] 2014, p. 4057. For partial or full quotations of this poem, see, for example, Qian Yale et al. (eds.), Tangye Bencao Jing Yazheng, Beijing: Zhongguo Zhongyiyao Chubanshe, [1885] 2015, pp. 26–27; Fan Xinghuan, ‘Cao Fugu Dongchong Xiacao Shi’, Shaoxing Yiyao Xuebao, 1910, (32): 9; Chai Xiaofan, Fantian Lu Conglu, Beijing: Gugong Chubanshe, [1926] 2013, pp. 1156–1157. For a brief account of the life of Cao Sanxuan (stylename: Fugu), see Pan Yantong, Liangzhe Youxuan Xulu, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1685), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1891] 2002, p. 366.

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    Sha Chen, Diancang Shanren Shichao, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1483), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1818] 2002, p. 212.

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    Chen Yong, Chusanxuan Congtan (Book 2, Vol. 4), p. 28.

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    This idea persisted into the first half of the twentieth century. For example, the author of a 1930 collection of miraculous tales described the caterpillar fungus as both a plant and an animal; its transformation rested on merely one qi [which united yin and yang], see Liuxian Houren, Liaozhai Zhiyi Waiji, Zhao Qinshi (ed.), Shanghai: Jingzhi Tushuguan, 1930, p. 31.

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    Wu Yangxian, Xiaopao’an Shicun, in Gu Tinglong (ed.), Xuxiu Siku Quanshu (Book 1548), Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, [1878] 2002, p. 35.

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    Dong Hongxun, Guzhangping Ting Zhi, in Jiangsu Guji Chubanshe (ed.), Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng (Hunan Fuxian Zhi Ji, Book 70), Nanjing: Jiangsu Guji Chubanshe, [1907] 2002, p. 418.

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    Tang Lixing, Merchants and Society in Modern China: Rise of Merchant Groups, London: Routledge, 2018, pp. 1–34.

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    Emily T. Yeh and Kunga T. Lama, ‘Following the Caterpillar Fungus: Nature, Commodity Chains, and the Place of Tibet in China’s Uneven Geographies’, Social & Cultural Geography, 2013, 14(3): 322.

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    Xie Shenglun, Dianqian Zhilue, Guiyang: Guizhou Renmin Chubanshe, [1763] 2008, p. 116.

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    Li Xinheng, Jinchuan Suoji, p. 64.

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    Chen Denglong, Litang Zhilue, p. 91.

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    Wang Peixun, Tingyu Lou Suibi, p. 349; Qi Xueqiu, Jianwen Xubi, p. 397.

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    Tang Zonghai, Bencao Wenda, p. 538; Tang Zonghai, Yiyi Tongshuo, p. 118.

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    Zhu Zhang, Guanshu Tang Shiji, in Ji Xianlin (ed.), Siku Quanshu Cunmu Congshu (Jibu, Book 258), Jinan: Qilu Shushe, [c. 1759] 1997, p. 701.

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    Qin Wuyu, Wenjian Banxiang Lu, in Wang Deyi (ed.), Congshu Jicheng Xubian (Book 24), Taipei: Xin Wenfeng Chuban Gongsi, [c. 1783] 1989, p. 506.

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    Jampel Dorje, mDzes mTshar Mig rGyan, Lokesh Chandra (ed.), New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, [first half of the nineteenth century] 1971, pp. 168, 391. For Jampel Dorje’s life and works, see Bao Yintu et al., ‘Zhuming Mengyao Xuejia Zhanbula Daoerji Shengping Xinkao’, Zhonghua Yishi Zazhi, 2004, 34(3): 162–165; Bao Hashen, ‘Zhanbula Daoerji Yu Mengyao Zhengdian Caobenlei Yaowu De Yanjiu’, Zhongyi Wenxian Zazhi, 2010, (1): 24–26. See also Olaf Czaja, ‘The Use of Insects in Tibetan Medicine’, Études Mongoles et Sibériennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines, 2019, (50): 4–6, 47. Based on Jampel Dorje’s record, some contemporary monographs on Mongolian materia medica include the caterpillar fungus as a Mongolian medicinal substance, see, for example, Song Liren (ed.), Zhonghua Bencao: Mengyao Juan, Shanghai: Shanghai Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, 2004, pp. 172–174.

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    Alexander Tatarinov, Catalogus Medicamentorum Sinensium, quae Pekini Comparanda et Determinanda Curavit, Petropoli: [Press Unknown], 1856, pp. iii, 45. For his life and activities in Beijing, see Hartmut Walravens, ‘Alexander Tatarinov (1817–1886) - Russischer Arzt und Sinologe: Eine Biobibliographische Skizze’, Sudhoffs Archiv, 1980, 64(4): 392–396.

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    Sumpa Khenpo Yeshe Paljor, gSo dPyad bDud rTsi Chu rGyun Gyi Cha Lag Gi Nang Tshan Gyi sMan So So So’i mNgon brJod Dang nGos’Dzin Shel dKar Me Long, in Sum Pa mKhan Po Ye Shes dPal’Byor Gyi gSung’Bum (Vol. 7), New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, [c. mid-eighteenth century] 1975, p. 300. For his life and works, see Jan Willem de Jong, ‘Sum-pa mkhan-po (1704–1788) and His Works’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 1967, 27: 208–216; Sanjit Kumar Sadhukhan, ‘The Life of Sum-Pa mKhan-Po (1704–1788), the Celebrated Author of dPag-bSam lJon-bZan’, Bulletin of Tibetology, 1992, 28(2): 12–15; Bao Yintuet al., ‘Zhuming Mengyiyao Xuejia Yixiba Lazhuer Jiqi Xueshu Chengguo Shuping’, Neimenggu Minzu Daxue Xuebao (Ziran Kexue Ban), 2004, 19(5): 554–557.

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    Donna Brunero, Britain’s Imperial Cornerstone in China: The Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1854–1949, London: Routledge, 2006, pp. 8–17.

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    Order of the Inspector General of Chinese Maritime Customs, Catalogue of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Collection, at the United States International Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1876, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, 1876, p. 76.

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    Order of the Inspector General of Customs, List of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, 1889, pp. 442, 447, 486.

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    Order of the Inspector General of Customs, List of Chinese Medicines, pp. v-vi. In the second part of the List, the eight categories are slightly different: Roots and Bulbs, Barks and Husks, Twigs and Leaves, Flowers, Seeds and Fruits, Grasses and Herbs, Insects, and Sundries.

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    For the relevant data, see Order of the Inspector General of Customs, List of Chinese Medicines, pp. 64–65, 80–81, 170–171, 204–205, 238–239, 254–255, 282–283, 332–333, 390–391, 406–407.

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    Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840–1943, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2015, p. 134.

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    Wang Wensheng, Wanqing Chongqing Haiguan De Lishi Kaocha, Hefei: Anhui Daxue Chubanshe, 2012, pp. 19–24.

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    Order of the Inspector General of Customs, List of Chinese Medicines, pp. 66–85.

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    Ma Jixing (ed.), Shennong Bencao Jing Jizhu, p. 214; Guo Baolin and Xiao Peigen, ‘Zhongyao Yinyang Huo Zhuyao Zhonglei Pingshu’, Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi, 2003, 28(4): 303–306.

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    Tao Hongjing, Bencao Jing Jizhu, Beijing: Renmin Weisheng Chubanshe, [c. 492] 1994, pp. 301–302.

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    Xie Yuanhua, Qinggong Yi’an Bingzheng Yu Fangyao De Guanlianxing Yanjiu (PhD Dissertation), Beijing: Beijing Zhongyiyao Daxue, 2008, pp. 54–55.

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    Chen Keji (ed.), Qinggong Yi’an Jicheng, p. 848.

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    Chen Keji (ed.), Qinggong Yi’an Jicheng, pp. 1047–1048.

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    Chen Keji (ed.), Qinggong Yi’an Jicheng, p. 1197. The year of this case of Li Lianying is unknown.

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    Xiong Fangsui et al., Qing Shilu (Book 60), Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, [c. 1914] 1987, p. 11; Zhang Kaiyuan (ed.), Qing Tongjian, Changsha: Yuelu Shushe, 2000, p. 1114.

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    These physicians include at least Cai Yiji (c. 1752– c. 1823) of Youxian, Hunan, Bao Xiang’ao (fl. the nineteenth century) of Shanhua, Hunan, Liu Jinfang (1825–1888) of Huai’an, Jiangsu, Wu Shiji (1806–1886) of Hangzhou, Zhejiang, Pan Mingxiong (1807–c. 1886) of Panyu, Guangdong, Shen Juren (fl. the late nineteenth century) of Suzhou, Jiangsu, Ding Yaochen (fl. the late nineteenth century) of Kuaiji (Shaoxing), Zhejiang, Tang Zonghai (1851–1897) of Pengxian (Pengzhou), Sichuan, Ling Huan (1822–1893) of Huzhou, Zhejiang, Tongyizi (1825–?) of Jiangyin, Jiangsu, the Buddhist monk Xinchan (fl. the late nineteenth century) of Putuo Shan, Zhejiang, Ma Peizhi (1820–1903) of Wujin, Jiangsu, Zhou Xuehai (1856–1906) of Jiande, Zhejiang, Zhang Naixiu (1844–1905) of Wuxi, Jiangsu, Yuan Renxian (fl. the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries) of Liuyang, Hunan, Zhao Lü’ao (1829–1904) and Zhao Guan’ao of Gaoyou, Jiangsu, Woyun Shanren, Fei Shengfu (1851–1914) of Wujin, Jiangsu, Chen Bingjun (1840–1914) of Qingpu, Jiangsu, Lu Jinsui (fl. the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries) of Suzhou, Jiangsu, Shao Lansun (1864–1922) of Shaoxing, Zhejiang, and Ding Ganren (1866–1926) of Wujin, Jiangsu.

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Lu, D. (2023). The Spread of a Sino-Tibetan Marvel. In: The Global Circulation of Chinese Materia Medica, 1700–1949. Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24723-1_2

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