Abstract
This chapter observes a wider social context, building on changes with SOEs. It unveils the reconstruction of a traditional proletariat in China, whereby a class society has re-emerged not only on micro-level but also in the country as a whole. Furthermore, argument can be made that state capitalism has returned to China.
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Notes
- 1.
Migrant workers belong to the working class. According to a report by National Bureau of Statistics (2020), the total number of migrant workers reached 298 million in 2019, and among the entire non-agricultural workforce, after deducting party and government cadres, employees of institutions, employees of social organisations, etc., migrant workers account for 60% of the workforce and have become a major component of industrial workers.
- 2.
See Wu Musheng’s (1988) excerpt of Eric John Ernest Hobsbawan’s discussion on British aristocratic workers in the nineteenth century, also see works of Wu Musheng (1982), Qian Chengdan et al. (2004) and Wang Lixin (1989). This term “labour aristocracy” refers to a group of workers who have higher salary, better treatment, more reputation in social status and more moderate politically than the ordinary workers. Workers from different industries established many opposing union organisations to protect their rights and interest. This had caused the organisational division of the working class. A few worker leaders betrayed the masses of workers. The status of workers was once only lower than their employers and much higher than others. However, between the “boss” and workers, there are aristocratic workers, technicians and independently recruited managers. The ordinary workers’ promotion opportunities were limited and the gap between the ordinary and aristocratic workers was widening.
- 3.
“Grasp Revolution and Promote Production” was officially proposed in 1966 by Mao Zedong. It aimed to ensure that cultural revolution is balanced with production and the cultural revolution must not be opposed to the development of production (Wang Junwei, 1996; Wang Xiangqing & Hu Dan, 2016; Wu Minxian & Sun Chengjun, 1994; Zheng Qian, 2011).
- 4.
Han Dongfang is the founder of China Labour Bulletin; he has had telephone interviews with workers in Dazhou, Sichuan Province and Fushun, Liaoning Province since 1998.
- 5.
See Notice of the State Council on Issuing the Outline of the National Scientific Suzhi Action Plan (2006–2010–2020) (guowuyuan guanyu yinfa quanmin kexue suzhi xingdong jihua gangyao). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2008-03/28/content_5301.htm;
Notice of the General Office of the State Council on Issuing the Implementation Plan of the National Scientific Suzhi Action Plan (2016–2020) (guowuyuan bangongting guanyu yinfa quanmin kexue suzhi xingdong jihua gangyao shishi fangan). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-03/14/content_5053247.htm;
and also see Notice of the State Council on Issuing the Outline of the National Scientific Suzhi Action Plan (2021–2035) (guowuyuan guanyu yinfa quanmin kexue suzhi xingdong guihua gangyao). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2021-06/25/content_5620813.htm.
- 6.
For example, Andrew Kipnis (2006, pp. 295–313) believed that “suzhi justifies social and political hierarchies of all sorts”. People with “high” suzhi deserve more income, power and status than those of “low” suzhi after the economic reforms. From Kipnis’s statements, the meanings and uses of suzhi after the economic reforms in China can be summarised in three points. “Suzhi is limited to individually embodied” but “no longer connotes the natural in a nature/nurture dichotomy”. “Suzhi has taken on sacred overtones and marks the hierarchical and moral distinction between the high and the low now and its improvement is a mission of national importance”. In his opinion, therefore, suzhi can be a very important standard to evaluate the level of social development.
- 7.
Certainly, the strata can be further refined to put those professionals such as doctors, lawyers and engineers between the managers and the white-collar workers, civil servants could also be excluded from the white-collar workers, and those small private business owners could also be placed above or below management. As my focus is on workers (manual workers), I will not go details.
- 8.
National Bureau of Statistics, Feb 28th, 2020, P. R. China 2019 National Economic and Social Development Statistical Bulletin (zhonghua renmin gongheguo 2019 nian guomin jingji he shehui fazhan tongji gongbao). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/202002/t20200228_1728913.html.
- 9.
China Merchants Bank, 22nd March 2019, Full text of China Merchants Bank Co., LTD 2018 Annual Report, (zhaoshang yinhang gufen youxian gongsi 2018 niandu baogao quanwen). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide:
https://file.cmbimg.com/cmbir/201903/fec83752-d517-4236-a04f-03b97a4cbf15.pdf
- 10.
Golden Sunflower Customers (jin kuihua kehu) means retail customers with monthly average daily total assets of 500,000 Yuan and above.
- 11.
Certainly, same as Fig. 6.2, in Fig. 6.5, there could be more circles within the working class to represent subgroups, distinguishing between those who work for state enterprises or those who do not, or according to the EGC case, those who are technical professionals, doctors, engineers, accountants, lawyers, etc. These groups do not represent capital and are even controlled by it. However, their interests are certainly not common to those of workers.
- 12.
Liu Xin (2002, 81–90) did a survey about class consciousness in Wuhan City in 1996, having the sample of 754 respondents. 77% of the respondents had clear conscious and thought of society as stratified. Although Liu used the term “jieceng” (strata) in the title, the whole research mixed the class and stratum, thinking these two terms are interchangeable. That means I am right about the confusing use of class and stratum in China and the whole society’s class consciousness was revoked after the economic reforms.
- 13.
Premiers in PRC have been in charge of daily running of the economy, including economic reforms. Therefore, this study counts them directly responsible for changes to take place. Although Zhu Rongji (premiership: 1998–2003) was not the Premier of PRC in 1995, since his appointment as Vice-Premier in 1993, he had been in charge of China’s economic policy-making. The other two Premiers’ premierships: Wen Jiabao, 2003–2013; and Li Keqiang, 2013-present.
The idea “fangxiao” was proposed in 1993 and “zhuda fangxiao” was published in a central document in 1995. See Decision of the Central Committee of the CCP on Several Issues Concerning the Establishment of a Socialist Market Economy System (Zhonggong Zhongyang guanyu jianshe shehui zhuyi shichang jingji ruogan wenti de jueding) and Proposal of the Central Committee of the CCP on the Formulation of the Ninth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Visionary Goals for 2010 (Zhonggong Zhongyang guanyu zhiding guomin jingji he shehui fazhan “jiuwu” jihua he 2010 nian yuanjin mubiao de jianyi). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.people.com.cn/item/20years/newfiles/b1080.html and http://www.gov.cn/test/2008-04/21/content_950407.htm.
The ideas of “guojin mintui” and “zuoda zuoqiang”, see Wu Xianyun’s (2018, p. 302) History of China’s Financial Industry and government work reports by Wen Jiabao and Li Keqiang. Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.gov.cn/wszb/zhibo20070315/content_541977.htm; http://www.nhc.gov.cn/cms-search/xxgk/getManuscriptXxgk.htm?id=34939d870550475485425ebcbc640893 and http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-07/04/c_1119162333.htm.
- 14.
Of course, I exclude the peasant class here unless they are farm labourers.
- 15.
See National Bureau. (2021). Q&A at the press conference of the White Paper “China's Comprehensive Well-being (Zhongguo de quanmian xiaokang baipi shu xinwen fabuhui da jizhe wen). September 29th, 2021. Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/202109/t20210929_1822623.html; also see Word Bank, Gini coefficient- China. Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: https://data.worldbank.org.cn/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=CN.
- 16.
Qiushi Wang, 2018, Getting to the bottom of the problem of “state capitalism” (renqing guojia ziben zhuyi wenti de zhenxiang). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.qstheory.cn/dukan/qs/2018-09/01/c_1123362691.htm.
- 17.
International Communist Current. 24th Nov, 2007. International Communist Current Declaration. Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: https://en.internationalism.org/.
- 18.
Mao Zedong, 9th July 1953. The original Chinese text: zhongguo xianzai de ziben zhuyi jingji qi jueda bufen shi zai renmin zhengfu guanli zhixia de, yong gezhong xingshi he guoyin shehui zhuyi lianxi zhe de, bing shou gongren jiandu de ziben zhuyi jingji. zhezhong ziben zhuyi jingji yijin bushi putong de ziben zhuyi jingji, er shi yizhong teshu de ziben zhuyi jingji, ji xinshi de guojia ziben zhuyi jingji. ta zhuyao di bushi weile zibenjia de lirun er cunzai, er shi weile gongying renmin he guojia de xuyao er cunzai. bucuo, gongrenmen haiyao wei zibenjia shengchan yibufen lirun, dan zhe zhizhan quanbu lirun zhong de yi xiaobufen, dayue zhizhan sifenzhiyi zuoyou, qiyu de sifenzhisan shi wei gongren (fuli fei) wei guojia (suode shui) ji wei kuoda shengchan shebei (qizhong baohan yixiaobufen shi wei zibenjia shengchan lirun de) er shengchan de. Yinci, zhezhong xinshi guojia ziben zhyi jingji shi daizhe henda de shehui zhuyi xingzhi de, shi dui gongren he guojia youli de). Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: https://www.marxists.org/chinese/maozedong/marxist.org-chinese-mao-19530709.htm.
- 19.
Wang Shaoguang. (2019). 70 Years of PRC: Industrialisation and SOEs (Xin zhongguo 70 nian: gongyehua yu guoqi). Nov 19th, 2019. Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: https://www.jingjidaokan.com/icms/null/null/ns:LHQ6LGY6LGM6MmM5Y2QyOTA2ZTcxZmM5YzAxNmU4MjZkOWFlYjAxODgscDosYTosbTo=/show.vsml.
- 20.
This is with inflation.
- 21.
See 1980–2016 China’s Annual Inflation Data (zhongguo linian tonghua pengzhanglv shuju (1980–2016)). Hao Jingui Finance. July 7th, 2016. Available on 12th Sep, 2022, vide: http://www.haojingui.com/tonghuopengzhang/1395.html 1985–2016.
- 22.
Annual Net Growth Rate = Annual Gross Growth Rate - Annual Inflation Rate.
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Huang, S.S. (2023). The Reconstruction of Classes and a Class Society in China. In: The Political Economy of Reforms and the Remaking of the Proletarian Class in China, 1980s–2010s. Palgrave Studies in Economic History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20455-5_6
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