Photo-Elicitation in Virtual Environments as a Tool for Teachers’ In-Service Training

Abstract

In this novel chapter, the value of online photo-elicitation sessions in training teachers to teach students who are culturally diverse is explored. Specifically, the questions to be answered are: how do a group of culturally diverse students, who are connected online, perceive the content of a photograph? Does the screen-mediated face-to-face presence of the students promote mutual knowledge and affective relationships between them? Some results are provided on these research questions; among others, the help of the photographs to the students to communicate doubts and to understand the decisions made by the teachers. However, the difficulty of interpreting and building knowledge online has also been verified and, therefore, the need for new studies.

Introduction

Our everyday lives are inundated with images and (audio)visual language in advertising, the media, our imagination and new forms of communication in the digital world. The field of education is no exception, and thus images have not only become a teaching resource in the classroom (Motta, 2016; Rigo, 2014), but have also, in recent decades, emerged as a valuable source of research data (Banks, 2010; Bautista & Velasco, 2011; Pink, 2007).

According to the classification proposed by Sarah Pink (2007), there are three different uses of photography in qualitative research: as a visual method of documentation, in collaborative photography and in interviews using photographs, known as photo-elicitation. As a visual method of documentation, photography has been used in the social sciences to create catalogues or archives of given aspects in the shape of photographic inventories. Pink indicates that such inventories have generally been based on the assumption that the objects photographed have a finite and unequivocal symbolic meaning, which overlooks the question of the meanings that these objects have for the individuals belonging to the community. Meanwhile, in participatory photography, researchers and informants alike collaborate in various ways to produce photographs. Through this collaborative production process, the images capture the intentions of both and represent the result of negotiating visions and meanings. In this chapter, however, I shall conduct an in-depth examination of photo-elicitation as a tool for collecting information through photographs taken by a group of participants in educational situations, not only for research purposes (providing answers to questions or hypotheses) but also for student education and teachers’ in-service training.

As some of the arguments presented here are based on the results of field work in virtual teaching environments, I shall summarise the corresponding research context below. The project in question, which was launched in 2016, was conducted with tutors of the AVE Global online Spanish as a Foreign Language courses designed and delivered by the Cervantes Institute. AVE Global offers a total of sixteen online courses that can be accessed via a range of electronic devices, including computers, tablets and mobile phones. The courses cover levels A1 to C1 of the Common European Framework of Reference and each course is divided into three thematic blocks. Besides hosting activities corresponding to the different topics, the platform provides various communication and work spaces, including a chat room, a blog, a forum and a wiki.

The course referred to here corresponded to level A1.1 and included the following topics: “Meeting people, greetings and personal information”, “Family and friends. Physical appearance and emotions” and “Food”. The tutored course comprised a total of 40 h divided into 30 h of individual work and 10 h of group tutorials. Of these latter, 6 h were devoted to asynchronous work and 4 h to oral work in groups via videoconferencing, with one videoconference session at the end of each topic and a final review session at the end of the course. The Cervantes Institute centre responsible for teaching this course is located in Sao Paulo and it was delivered between 13 August and 12 November 2018.

The study aims were: to determine the online tutors’ level of intercultural communication competence; to identify the factors favouring or hindering acquisition of this competence; and to explore, in collaboration with the tutors, the most effective strategies for incorporating work on intercultural skills and attitudes into online courses. As can be seen, the project drew on three thematic areas of research: interculturality; teachers’ in-service training; and online teaching. Furthermore, not only did it explore online language teaching, but the research itself was mainly conducted in a virtual environment following Hine’s principles of virtual ethnography (2004).

When designing the photo-elicitation sessions, a series of questions arose which merit reflection, since the literature identified to date solely discusses use of this method in face-to-face contexts. These questions were as follows. Can the benefits of photo-elicitation be transferred to virtual contexts? Is it necessary to modify the design or procedure of photo-elicitation sessions when these are carried out online? In what ways can photo-elicitation be used in online in-service training for teachers? This chapter will attempt to answer these questions.

Photography as an Act of Communication

Before analysing the design and procedure of photo-elicitation sessions in virtual environments, it will be helpful to discuss the very concept of photography and the photographic act as an act of communication. First, it is necessary to deconstruct the positivist notion of photography as the mimetic—and therefore objective and neutral—reproduction of reality, in which the value of photography is considered to reside solely in its documentary function, either as an illustration of given events or as a photographic catalogue or archive of particular events or communities. On the contrary, photographs are never neutral, because they are taken by a particular individual with a specific intention, using consciously selected framing or lighting.

In opposition to this traditional stance of viewing a photograph as a mirror of reality, that is to say, as a symbol, Marzal (2015, p. 61) suggests that it should considered an “impression of reality” in which external reality is mediated by the particular gaze of the person taking the shot. Photography thus becomes an interpretation of reality, an ideologically and culturally codified construction—a symbol (Marzal, 2015)—that can also represent emotions (Barthes, 1989). This process of mediation is present not only in the production of the communicative act, but also in its reception, as the viewer interprets the photographic text. Photographs acquire meaning under the subjective gaze of those viewing them; thus, individuals construct their own meanings by relating an image to their personal experiences, their previous knowledge and their cultural frames of reference (Pink, 2007).

The photographic act also implies a transformation of reality that operates on the coordinates of time and space. With regard to time, it is worth mentioning that when we take a photograph, we “cut” a fraction of a second in time. Thus, that particular moment is destined to last. As Marzal says, it is a moment that ceases to elapse, an instant that is preserved forever (2015, p. 78). Not only is time stopped, but also the event that occurred is perpetuated, enabling the individual to evoke and recall in the present something that was experienced in the past. Photographic time and chronological time are therefore different, and this is an important factor to consider when selecting images for photo-elicitation sessions and also when sequencing, analysing and interpreting them during research. The chronological order in which photographs were taken is a valid method of categorising them, but unlike in traditional or positivist approaches, from a critical qualitative approach it is not the only one that is valid. Visual elements can be organised according to other parameters such as theme or argument, researcher-imposed categories or research goals, among others (Pink, 2007).

Turning to photographic space, we can see that here too, a “cut” occurs when a photograph is taken, as there is a relationship between what is represented within the photographic field and what remains outside it. As noted in earlier chapters, photographic space is defined by the framing and composition of the image, which enables analysis of the spatial arrangement of the elements in the photograph. Marzal (2015) identifies a third level of photographic space where representation of the space contained within the image is related to the external space in the moment it is perceived by the receiver.

Marzal’s (2015, p. 99) adaptation of Laswell’s well-known model of communication to the field of photography is enlightening. According to this model, all acts of communication contain the following elements:

• The sender or producer: the person who creates the message, in this case the photographer.

• The message: in our case contained in the photographic text.

• The receiver: the person who receives, decodes and interprets the message.

• The communication channel: that is, the medium or space in which the photograph is located, for example an exhibition, a billboard, a book, a digital newspaper or the internet. The channel determines the way in which the message is received, as well as the techniques and technologies used to produce it.

• The sociological, historical and cultural context: this affects all the above-mentioned elements, from the production of the photographic text to its interpretation.

In conclusion, as Correa (2011) has said:

Audiovisual productions surround us and shape us; not only do we interpret them, but we also construct them and create them. They form part of our cultural process, constitute our symbolic universe and are part of our internal reality, shaping our subjectivity. In one way or another, audiovisual narratives help us to represent, explain and experience the world. Images exert real effects on our social relations and on our own identities. (p. 54)

Photo-Elicitation in Teachers’ In-Service Training

There is a substantial body of literature on the importance of reflection in teachers’ in-service training aimed at improving their teaching practice (Imbernón, 2007; Schön, 1989; Segovia, 1997). Schön (1989) distinguishes between two types of reflection, namely: reflection in action, and reflection on action. The first takes place while an action is happening, without interrupting it, and therefore we can still change the situation that is occurring. Meanwhile, reflection on action occurs once the action is over and we have time to reflect on the changes we made while it was in progress (in the case that we engaged in reflection in action), or on how we should have acted, trying to unravel the beliefs, attitudes, theories or values that informed our decision-making. Along these lines, Vaillant and Marcelo (2015) and other authors in the preceding chapters indicate that one of the principles that should guide teachers’ in-service training is that of generating opportunities to improve understanding of the theories, previous experiences and beliefs that act as a filter in teaching practice. Photo-elicitation therefore presented an excellent means to generate such opportunities and thus to encourage reflection on the teaching practice of the AVE Global tutors with whom we worked in order to identify solutions to the problems, contradictions or conflicts that were detected.

Elliott (1997) has defined the reflection processes necessary to improve teaching practice as action-research loops consisting of three stages. The first of these is lesson planning (determining the objectives, content and materials that teachers will require for a period of time). The second is implementation of the lesson plan and recording information on what happened. In our case, this took the form of recording Skype sessions held during the course (four in total) and of capturing images of the materials and communication spaces hosted on the virtual platform. The third and last stage is analysis and reflection on what was recorded in the previous step, for which we used photo-elicitation.

As indicated at the beginning of this chapter, photo-elicitation consists of using an image in research and training situations to elicit information from participants. One of the foundations of this procedure is the response we give through and to different systems of representation. As we know, photography supports three levels of meaning, namely: the denotative, the connotative and the Barthesian punctum. Images have more power than verbal language to evoke lived experience because in evolutionary terms, the parts of the brain that process visual information are older than those that process verbal language, and also because exchanges based solely on words employ less brain capacity than those where the brain must process both images and words (Harper, 2002, p. 13). Consequently, photo-elicitation is not aimed at accessing a greater quantity of information, but rather, by using photographs during interviews, at obtaining a different quality of information (Harper, 2002; Pink, 2007) related to tacit aspects such as ideas, intentions, values and affects.

In those observing the image, photo-elicitation can provoke a reaction, evoke or call to mind experiences or generate a dialogue with others. It is precisely this dialogue with others, where meanings are negotiated and the experiential world and cultural frameworks of others are explored, that has enabled successful use of photo-elicitation to strengthen intercultural relations in various educational contexts (Bautista et al., 2012; Rayón & De las Heras, 2011; Ruiz, 2017). Thanks to the evocative power of the image and the inquiry processes generated during photo-elicitation sessions, this procedure provides a valuable means to render explicit the beliefs or theories underlying teachers’ practice, and based on reflection, to implement changes that improve teaching practice or that resolve conflicts or dilemmas arising from that practice (Bautista, 2017; Bautista et al., 2016).

If we start from an approach where photography is considered a visual text through which people reference aspects of their experiences and knowledge, then certain questions must be taken into account when designing and planning photo-elicitation sessions. In line with the arguments advanced in Chapter 6, it should be stressed that photo-elicitation is a flexible procedure where the different elements that come into play will inevitably vary from one situation to another. Any prescriptive position on this issue is therefore best avoided, as it is the participants and researchers who are best aware of the specific needs of their training or research context. Nonetheless, it is possible to outline some of the decisions that must be taken in the design of photo-elicitation sessions.

First, one must decide whether the images to be used during the discussion should be taken by the researcher, the interviewee or previously by a third party; they can even be photographs from the participant’s personal collection or family album. Pink (2007) stresses that photographs taken by the informants themselves have value on two different levels: on the one hand, the images were taken at moments that were significant for them and reflect their own narrative of events, while on the other, when informants talk about these photographs they place them in a new narrative and give them a renewed meaning (2007, p. 91). However, other researchers such as Clark-Ibáñez highlight the use of images taken by the researchers as an excellent means “to capture aspects that participants take for granted about their lives or community, in order to promote discussion” (2004, p. 1509). Ultimately, the decision will depend on the objectives of the sessions and on the desire, confidence and/or availability of the actors involved to take the images or not.

Another question to consider is the device used to take the photographs. Depending on context, this could be a digital camera, an analogue camera, a webcam or a mobile phone with a camera. In addition, the photographs to be used in the sessions may be originals or copies, or could even be photographs of photographs or digital images. Furthermore, the photographs could also be edited, digitally retouched or not. Bearing in mind the arguments advanced in Chapter 6, it is also necessary to decide the order in which participants intervene when narrating and interpreting the meanings contained in the photographs.

Transferring Photo-Elicitation to Virtual Contexts

Having considered the elements involved in photo-elicitation and identified the necessary decisions, our next step was to meet the challenge of transferring this procedure to an online environment. Given the lack of literature on the use of photo-elicitation in virtual environments, we set out to design the sessions based on other examples of its use in teachers’ in-service education in face-to-face contexts (Bautista & Velasco, 2011; Bautista, 2017; Bautista et al., 2018). In this initial design, it was agreed with the tutor that she would be responsible for taking screenshots throughout the course of any aspect that drew her attention, generated questions about her teaching practice or that for whatever other reason she wanted to share during the sessions. However, after several email and Skype exchanges, it became apparent that the tutor felt uncomfortable taking the pictures. As we know, it is impossible in qualitative research to foresee all the situations that may arise once the study has begun, and consequently the design of these sessions must be flexible and open to modification. Thus, it was decided to modify the initial approach and it was agreed that the researcher would be responsible for taking screenshots and selecting the images for subsequent use in the discussion.

This change had important implications for how the sessions were conducted and the roles assumed by the researcher and tutor. As explained earlier, a photograph reflects the intentions and the particular gaze of the person who took it. We were aware that our previous experiences, knowledge and interests would mediate and filter our perception of course delivery: another observer of the same events would probably have taken different images. Therefore, it was agreed that the researcher would select and present the images and the tutor would have to try to discern the intentionality behind the photographs thus presented, taking into account the research topics under study, namely the treatment of interculturality in teaching Spanish as a foreign language, teachers’ in-service training and online teaching. We hoped that her inquiry into our intentions would prompt the tutor to elaborate and make explicit the theories or beliefs that had informed her decisions during the course. Thus, she had to reinterpret certain practices or moments during the course in a new light that might either agree with or question her principles and beliefs. We wanted to generate a dialogical process between the researcher and the tutor in which impressions, beliefs and theories were reinterpreted in a process of co-construction of new meanings in the discussion generated by the photographic content. Far from being a disadvantage, we believe that recognition of this dynamic placed us in a strong position to apply the principles of reflexivity to data interpretation (Hine, 2004; Pink, 2007).

On the other hand, the shift in responsibility for taking screenshots implied that the researcher assumed an active role as a producer, with the consequent danger that the power relations between tutor and researcher would change. One way to disrupt this power dynamic between observer and observed is to place the researcher under the scrutiny of the camera as well, using it as a democratising element (Pink, 2007). Consequently, the researcher activated her camera during the Skype sessions and was recorded together with the tutor and the students; on another occasion, in a videoconference session held during one of the units on the family and descriptions of physical appearance and personality, the tutor shared a photograph of her family (Image 8.1) with the group and the researcher subsequently posted a photograph of her own family (Image 8.2) in the forum thread opened for this purpose.

Image 8.1

Tutor’s family. Image used in a photo-elicitation session

Image 8.2

Researcher’s family

Having analysed the producer and receiver of the photographic text, the dynamics established in the photo-elicitation sessions and the reasons that led to these decisions, it is helpful to examine the medium used to take the photographs. Since this was a virtual teaching-learning environment, we decided to use a digital tool (the Snipping tool included in Windows) to take screenshots of course delivery, since a camera did not seem an appropriate device for obtaining high resolution images of what was happening on the screen. As indicated when describing the elements of the communicative act, the context and the channel have an impact on the other elements.

A person taking screenshots is necessarily limited to what happens on the screen, reducing his or her capacity for action compared to someone taking a photograph in a face-to-face context with a camera, because in the latter case, the producer can select fundamental aspects of the image such as the camera angle or position, whereas in our case, the element over which we had most control was the frame, as we could only choose between capturing the whole screen or a specific part of the elements displayed. As regards recordings of the Skype sessions (used to answer queries and provide speaking practice), these also reflected solely what appeared on the screen, albeit this was influenced by the position of each user’s webcam and even by his or her decision to turn the camera on or not.

As we can see, the very conception of space varies depending on whether we are in a face-to-face educational situation that takes place in three dimensions in a shared space, usually a school that is simultaneously hosting the different actors (teachers, students, researchers), or a virtual environment, where the course materials and the various learning areas (e.g. forum, chat room or wiki) are accessed via a screen, which is a two-dimensional space that is not necessarily occupied simultaneously by the various actors. These are important differences that should be considered in the design and implementation of photo-elicitation sessions, especially if both the sessions themselves and the teaching practices they reflect are conducted online (Image 8.3).

Image 8.3

Course study room. Image used in a photo-elicitation session

As noted above, the procedure employed during the photo-elicitation sessions was as follows: the researcher took the screenshots and recorded the videoconferencing sessions. She then selected some of the images and noted her reasons for choosing them, rendering her intentions explicit. By way of illustration, the notes taken in the field diary for Images 8.1, 8.3 and 8.4 are given below:

• Image 8.1—Tutor’s family: “Chosen for its intercultural value and intent to forge a connection with the other. Also, because I believe this activity contributed to narrowing the divide that may have existed between teachers and students and to generating a good atmosphere in the group. This connection with the other is forged on a more micro level, without taking it to the level of the family in Spain or Brazil, but rather focusing on the personal and experiential reality of each one. Find out why she chose this photograph”.

• Image 8.3—Study room: “I have highlighted the materials section due to its specific importance in delivering the annual programme. My impression is that the teacher’s power to act in this type of course is much more limited than it would be in a face-to-face class, where, even if a textbook is the key element in the teaching-learning process, it is usually possible to select which activities from the book to do and which can done as a group, or to use other additional materials. What role(s) do you play as an online tutor for the AVE Global courses and is it consistent with your roles as a face-to-face teacher?”

• Image 8.4—AVE Global A1.1 course activity: “Selected to reflect on activities that try to include interculturality but remain the student’s personal reflection without being shared with the group, which means that this opportunity to interact with peers and reflect on the relativisation and construction of cultural practices is lost. Also as an example of the concept of culture being equated with national culture (of the nation state) at country level. One of the things that the intercultural paradigm promotes is to go beyond the question of what something is like in your country, since this homogenises cultural diversity”.

  Image 8.4

  

  AVE Global A1.1 course activity used in a photo-elicitation session

Subsequently, a day and time was agreed to proceed to the discussion stage by videoconference. In this session, the tutor had to try to identify the intentionality behind the selection of images, bearing in mind the topics of study in the research project (interculturality, online teaching and teachers’ in-service training), and it was expected that she would reinterpret the moments captured in a new light.

An initial analysis of these virtual sessions indicated that, as in face-to-face contexts, photo-elicitation proved an appropriate tool for rendering explicit the theories underlying the decisions taken in practice. Thus, for example, commenting on the first image, the following intervention took place:

Tutor:

So I don't know if other tutors do this, but I think that the question of affectivity, and creating a connection, is very important in the classroom, whether you’re a tutor or a teacher. So by bringing something personal, right, you get much closer. Of course, I selected this image very consciously. When I started teaching I was very much against revealing anything personal, but it works very well. I’ve had to... learn that it works well. So the idea of bringing a personal photograph was a little bit for that reason because I could have used an internet photograph of a family, period. I don’t know if that was what attracted your attention, that it was a real photograph, a personal photograph in, in...

As we can see, the tutor explained that she had shown a photograph of her own family because she was interested in issues related to affectivity in the classroom. Believing that it is positive to establish a connection with students in order to promote a favourable affective atmosphere, she decided to use a personal photograph. But this was not the only reason:

Researcher:

And why did you choose this particular one?

Tutor:

I have, I have two actually and I alternate them. This one because there are a lot of people, right, and there are various generations and different types, right, and the other one I have is of a wedding, right? And of a wedding, well, with all the possible clichés. It’s there because of the number and, well that, because of the physical differences too and between young people and people... and here for example when we talk about age there is also a lot... they get very confused because here is my older brother and my younger brother, so I wanted there to be different generations because of that. So it was also partly for the practical side that I chose it.

We can see that the act of bringing a photograph of her family into the classroom to carry out a given activity was not accidental, but rather that her decision stemmed from her belief in the importance of the affective dimension in language teaching and the need to provide students with a sample of language tailored to the grammatical and lexical structures being studied in the unit (the family and descriptions of physical appearance and personality). Unlike the other two photographs presented, the tutor had seen this image before and it represented a significant moment for her. However, its use in the photo-elicitation session gave the image a new narrative and a renewed meaning (Pink, 2007). No longer simply a personal family photograph, the image acquired new meanings as a teaching resource and as a subject of study.

On other occasions, following reflection on the photographs presented, the tutor questioned the decisions made by those who had designed the courses and the platform:

Tutor:

No, I don’t know why the people who designed the materials used these particular generalities. Where did they get this information? Why did they put it there? What was their intention in transmitting this kind of...information? I don’t know…

[…]

Researcher:

That was on the one hand and then the other... my idea behind this screenshot was a little what we had already mentioned, that it’s perhaps a very interesting activity to open up a debate, to promote communication and interaction, but in fact it’s an activity where you respond, you make a somewhat individual reflection, and that’s it, isn’t it? There’s no continuity or you can’t see what has enriched the students, for example.

Tutor:

I don’t really know why the group was formed, you know? If then you have very little interaction between the students. Was the group created for administrative reasons, for a question of... or what? Because they could be one-to-one classes and one-to-one conversation sessions... And it wouldn’t make much difference.

The conversation concerned Image 8.4. This activity was aimed at exploring socio-cultural behaviours, but through individual work without offering students the opportunity to share their responses with their peers and thus promote interaction and knowledge of the other. Furthermore, the material was addressed from the stance of generalisation and the equation of culture with national culture. As we can see, the tutor questioned the activity design and the intentions of the authors when including this content, as well as the very organisation of the students into groups. This question resurfaced again later:

Researcher:

Of course, maybe when carrying out the activities, it’s like you say, you go through them, you go... everyone at their own pace, right? There’s a schedule, but we all know that in the end we do what we can in the time available, and the times when I really got to know the others, the other students, was in the Skype sessions.

Tutor:

Yes, basically... [...] also, your group was one of the best in terms of forum participation and of, of the people who attended the Skype sessions because others, well, in the end it’s often only one student who turns up and so, like I said, there’s not much difference in the Skype sessions from being one-to-one to being in a group because when you set them interaction tasks... they’re reluctant or it doesn’t work or they’re not able uh... because of their circumstances or their work, right, to do it. And in the end I have to wrap it up, I end up doing it for them in the next Skype session.

Concerns therefore arose that affected her practice as an online tutor of these courses, and faced with these concerns or problems, she tried to find solutions:

Tutor:

For example, it would be great if when you were taking the screenshots, the forum or a chat room was open to one side, right, because that’s where queries arise and you could have that interaction. Of course it wouldn’t be in real time because it isn’t always the same students or the same tutors who are connected, but it would be much more dynamic and easier to respond to. Or, for example, like now, that the Skype session or other types of platform were integrated within the platform.

In this case, the discussion concerned the third image, corresponding to the study room, and the fact that students spent most of their time in the materials section, which hosts the course activities. Faced with the problem of the lack of interaction between students and between students and teachers, a solution was proposed; however, its implementation did not depend on the tutor, as it would involve changing the design and functionalities of the online platform.

This analysis shows that the images served as a catalyst to access the theories or beliefs that mediated the tutor’s decision-making (e.g. in the discussion generated around Image 8.1), to question approaches or the design of materials (as in the case of Image 8.4) or to work on finding solutions to previously identified problems (as in the example of Image 8.3). Although preliminary, the results to date seem to be in agreement with those reported in other, similar studies (Bautista et al., 2018; Bautista et al., 2016) where photo-elicitation was used in face-to-face in-service training for teachers.

By Way of an Epilogue

Returning to the questions posed at the beginning of this chapter, I am now in a position to answer the first one in the affirmative. The benefits of photo-elicitation can indeed be transferred to virtual contexts, but as has been argued, and in relation to the second question, design and implementation of photo-elicitation sessions must take into account the particular characteristics of the context of image production and reception, as well as the research context. The person taking the images is necessarily limited to what happens on the screen, and his or her capacity for action is therefore reduced in terms of deciding aspects such as camera position. In fact, in the present case, the medium used to take the images was not a camera at all, but the Snipping tool that enables the user to select which part of the screen to capture.

Lastly, I asked in what ways photo-elicitation could be used in virtual in-service training for teachers. I wish to stress that there is no single way to implement photo-elicitation. Consequently, far from proposing rigid prescriptions or guidelines to be followed, I have posed a series of questions to be taken into account in the design of the sessions (for example, who should take the images, the order in which the participants should intervene in the discussion, or the type of device to be used to take the photographs) and I have reported my own experience, illustrating the flexibility of this technique and outlining the decisions the research team made in response to the situations that arose. I believe that beyond the results, the novelty of this chapter lies in the challenge, given the lack of previous experience in this area, of bringing photo-elicitation into the digital context. Therefore, I have provided various arguments intended to encourage the reader to embark on the exciting challenge of using photo-elicitation in virtual teaching and learning communities.