Keywords

3.1 Framework Scope and Structure

Similar to previous IEA studies of civic and citizenship education, ICCS places great emphasis on the measurement of affective-behavioral aspects with student questionnaire items. These measures are regarded as important learning outcomes and have a similar standing in the process of development, analysis, and reporting as cognitive measures of students’ civic knowledge. Student attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors relevant to civic and citizenship issues are organized according to two affective-behavioral areas which are elaborated in the sections which follow:

  • Affective-behavioral area 1: Attitudes (e.g., judgements in relation to ideas, people, objects, events or situations)

  • Affective-behavioral area 2: Engagement (e.g., interest in, and expectations of, civic engagement through civic action and future political participation)

Aspects relating to these domains are measured with the international or regional ICCS 2022 student questionnaires using items that do not require correct or incorrect responses (typically with Likert-type item format), indicating for example the extent to which respondents agree or disagree with a given statement. While most constructs or aspects are measured as an integral part of the international student questionnaire, others are included as international options or in the regional student questionnaires for Europe and Latin America. It should be noted that, the inclusion of topics in regional instruments was determined by region-specific interests expressed by countries in each geographic region and does not mean that they are deemed as unimportant in other countries.

3.2 Attitudes

The affective-behavioral area, attitudes, refers to judgements or evaluations regarding ideas, persons, objects, events, situations, and/or relationships. It is possible for individuals to harbor contradictory attitudes at the same time. Attitudes encompass perceptions that are focused on specifics and can change over time, as well as those reflecting broader and more fundamental (or deeply rooted) beliefs (about values)Footnote 1 that tend to be constant over longer periods of time. Attitudes include attitudes toward civic principles, perceptions of civic issues and institutions, and perceptions of civic roles and identities.

Constructs and measures reflecting students’ attitudes are described with regard to the following subareas, which cover similar aspects as three of the four content domains in Chap. 2 (i.e., civic principles, civic institutions and systems, and civic roles and identities):

  • Attitudes toward civic principles: examples include attitudes toward gender equality, attitudes toward diversity, and attitudes toward sustainable development.

  • Attitudes toward civic issues and institutions: examples include trust in institutions, and perceptions of threats to the world’s future.

  • Attitudes toward civic roles and identities: examples include perceptions of good citizenship behavior, European identity, and expectations about one’s individual future.

3.2.1 Attitudes Toward Civic Principles

The following constructs reflecting student attitudes toward civic principles are measured as part of the international student questionnaire and the regional European and the Latin American questionnaires in ICCS 2022:

  • Students’ perceptions of threats to democracy (international student questionnaire)

  • Students’ attitudes toward gender equality (international student questionnaire)

  • Students’ attitudes toward equal rights for immigrants and non-immigrants (international student questionnaire)

  • Students’ attitudes toward environmental sustainability (international student questionnaire)

  • Students’ attitudes toward equal rights for all ethnic groups in society (international student questionnaire, optional)

  • Students’ perceptions of discrimination (European and Latin American student questionnaires)

  • Students’ attitudes toward freedom of movement for European citizens within Europe (European student questionnaire)

  • Students’ attitudes toward corrupt practices (Latin American student questionnaire)

  • Students’ attitudes toward disobedience to the law (Latin American student questionnaire)

  • Students’ attitudes toward homosexuality (Latin American student questionnaire)

Students’ perceptions of threats to democracy: In the IEA CIVED survey in 1999, students were asked to rate a number of characteristics of society as either “good or bad for democracy” (see Torney-Purta et al., 2001). ICCS 2009 used a set of nine items that measured the extent of student agreement as to what a society should be like, using a set of items that were adapted from a subset of those included in CIVED. Most of these items were endorsed by very large majorities of students across all participating countries (Schulz et al., 2010). In ICCS 2016, students’ attitudes toward democratic values were assessed using a different format that requires students to rate a number of possible characteristics of a society as “good”, “bad” or “neither good nor bad” for democracy, and results showed considerable variations across countries (Schulz et al., 2018b). For ICCS 2022, students are asked about their perceptions of the extent to which different possible situations in society would be bad for democracy.

Students’ attitudes toward gender equality: Gathering data about attitudes toward women’s rights was part of the IEA civic education studies in 1971 and 1999 (Torney et al., 1975; Torney-Purta et al., 2001). ICCS 2009 measured the endorsement of gender equality and showed that large majorities agreed with the positive, and disagreed with the negative, statements about gender equality (Schulz et al., 2010). Support for gender equality was associated with student characteristics, and female students expressed more support for gender equality than males (Sandoval et al., 2018). ICCS 2016 results, making use of the same item set as in the previous cycle, showed increased endorsement of gender equality in some countries as well as persisting differences across participating countries (Schulz & Ainley, 2018; Schulz et al., 2018). ICCS 2022 assesses students’ attitudes toward gender equality with a slightly modified set of items. While these studies have traditionally considered gender equality between women and men, conceptualizations of gender have evolved beyond this binary view of gender. Consequently, we expect that a broader conceptualization of gender, which recognizes individual gender self-determination including non-binary conceptualizations, will underpin the measurement of students’ attitudes towards gender identity in future cycles of ICCS.

Students’ attitudes toward the rights of immigrants: The assessment of beliefs about the rights for immigrants has been a focus of research in recent years (Heath & Richards, 2016; Masso, 2009; Paas & Halapuu, 2012; Rustenbach, 2010). Using similar item sets as in CIVED 1999 (Torney-Purta et al., 2001), ICCS 2009 measured endorsement of rights for immigrants and found that majorities among lower-secondary students tended to be overwhelmingly in favor of equal rights for immigrants (Schulz et al., 2010). However, support was associated with student characteristics and female and immigrant students had more positive attitudes (Munck et al., 2018; Sandoval et al., 2018; Schulz et al., 2010). Based on the same set of items in its regional European questionnaire, ICCS 2016 showed similar levels of support across European countries as in the first ICCS cycle (Losito et al., 2018). Given the increased importance of immigration also in many non-European countries (e.g., as a consequence of the recent refugee crises in Latin America), ICCS 2022 measures these attitudes as part of the international student questionnaire.

Students’ attitudes toward equal rights for all ethnic groups in society: This construct reflects students’ beliefs about equal rights for all ethnic groups in a country. Using similar items as in CIVED 1999 (Torney-Purta et al., 2001), ICCS 2009 measured this construct with statements reflecting attitudes toward equal rights for all ethnic groups, and results showed typically high levels of agreements as well as variations across and within countries (Sandoval et al., 2018; Schulz et al., 2010). ICCS 2016 used the same set of items to measure this construct and found that support for equal rights had significantly increased in most countries that had participated in the first two cycles of this study (Schulz, 2018; Schulz & Ainley, 2018; Schulz et al., 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to assess young people’s attitudes toward equal rights for all ethnic/racial groups in society with an optional question in the international student questionnaire.

Students’ perceptions of discrimination: Discrimination based on personal and/or group characteristics is perceived as a persisting issue across many societies. In European contexts, adult surveys have shown perceptions of quite high levels of discrimination, in particular regarding ethnic origin (European Commission, 2012a). However, there is evidence that people from European countries with more effective antidiscrimination laws tend to be more knowledgeable about rights regarding discrimination (Ziller, 2014). Opinion surveys among adults also highlighted that across Latin American countries there are high levels of perceived discrimination, regarding poor people, members of indigenous communities, and people of African descent (Chong & Ñopo, 2007; Ñopo et al., 2010), and perceptions of discrimination were associated with individual background (skin color and ethnicity) as well as contextual factors (Canache et al., 2014). The ICCS 2022 regional questionnaires for European and Latin American countries include sets of items measuring the extent to which students perceive specific social groups as discriminated in their countries.

Students’ attitudes toward freedom of movement for European citizens within Europe: Freedom of movement for European citizens across EU member countries was an essential part of the Lisbon Strategy (European Council, 2000).Footnote 2 There is evidence that cross-border mobility leads to a stronger identification with Europe, positive attitudes toward the EU and specific visions of the EU, all of which also contribute to increased EU-related engagement (Mazzoni et al., 2017) even though challenges remain regarding the monitoring of movement of all individuals (Carrera, 2005). The European student questionnaire in ICCS 2009 measured students’ attitudes toward freedom of movement using positive and negative statements about the freedom of movement between EU countries for European citizens. Analyses of data based on these statements suggested the presence of two constructs reflecting support of freedom of movement and preferences for restrictions, respectively. Results showed overwhelming student support for the benefits of free movement, as well as substantial proportions in favor of restricting the movement of workers across borders (see Kerr et al., 2010). The ICCS 2016 European student questionnaire included a similar item set and results showed that majorities among students endorsed this principle (Losito et al., 2018). The topic of free movement within the EU continues to be of high relevance in public debate and ICCS 2022 assesses this construct with a modified item set to measure students’ perceptions regarding freedom of movement.

Students’ attitudes toward corrupt practicesFootnote 3 (included in the Latin American questionnaire): Corruption is widely regarded as one of Latin America’s most salient problems and, with few exceptions, countries in this region tend to have low indices of transparency in cross-national surveys as well as higher levels of acceptance of corrupt practices (Torgler & Valev, 2006; Transparency International, 2019). Citizens’ perceptions of the level of corruption have also been found to be related to lower levels of trust in institutions (Morris & Klesner, 2010; Riccucci, 2014) and large proportions of Latin American citizens reported personal experiences with corrupt practices (Morris & Blake, 2010). In its Latin American student questionnaire, ICCS 2009 and 2016, measured young people’s attitudes toward corrupt practices, and results showed an acceptance of corrupt practices by many, albeit not by a majority of students (Schulz et al., 2011, 2018a). ICCS 2022 continues to assess this construct with a slightly reduced set of items.

Students’ attitudes toward disobedience to the law (included in the Latin American questionnaire): Cross-national adult surveys in Latin American countries have shown a high level of ambiguity regarding civic morality (i.e., moral behavior and accepting civil disobedience), with some countries of the region recording high proportions of acceptance in regard to law-breaking (Letki, 2006), particularly amongst young people (Torgler & Valev, 2006). The Latin American student questionnaires in ICCS 2009 and 2016 included items measuring students’ acceptance of breaking the law under different circumstances, and results from both surveys showed that larger proportions of young people in the participating countries endorsed civil disobediences, in particular, in cases where it was perceived as the only way to achieve things, help the family, or when it was done without bad intentions (Schulz et al., 2011, 2018a). The Latin American student questionnaire in ICCS 2022 includes an unmodified item set to measure comparisons over time.

Students’ attitudes toward homosexuality (included in the Latin American questionnaire): In the past, survey data from the Latin American region suggested considerable differences across countries within the region and a divided public opinion regarding attitudes toward homosexuality (Latinobarómetro, 2009; Pew Research Center, 2014a). Research has shown that attitudes towards homosexuality in the region are often associated with age, gender, socioeconomic background, education, and religious beliefs (Kelley, 2001; Navarro et al., 2019; Pew Research Center, 2014b). In both ICCS 2009 and 2016, the Latin American regional questionnaires included items asking students about their agreement with statements about homosexuality. In accordance with previous survey research among adults, the results showed considerable variation in attitudes across the participating countries. Support for legalization of gay marriage increased between 2009 and 2016 in Chile, Colombia and Mexico where large majorities among students endorsed this position (Schulz et al., 2011, 2018a). The regional instrument for Latin America in ICCS 2022 includes the same set of items measuring students’ attitudes toward homosexuality which was used in ICCS 2016.

3.2.2 Attitudes Toward Civic Issues and Institutions

The following constructs reflecting student attitudes toward civic issues and institutions are measured using the international student questionnaire and the regional European and Latin American questionnaires in ICCS 2022:

  • Students’ perceptions of student participation at their schools (international student questionnaire);

  • Students’ attitudes toward the political system (international student questionnaires);

  • Students’ acceptance of restrictions during a national emergency (international student questionnaire);

  • Students’ trust in institutions (international student questionnaire);

  • Students’ perceptions of threats to the world’s future (international student questionnaire);

  • Students’ attitudes toward the influence of religion in society (international student questionnaire, optional);

  • Students’ expectations of the future of Europe (European student questionnaire);

  • Students’ attitudes toward cooperation among European countries (European student questionnaire);

  • Students’ attitudes toward the European Union (European student questionnaire);

  • Students’ attitudes toward authoritarian government practices (Latin American student questionnaire).

Students’ perceptions of student participation at their school: Adolescents are mostly not yet able to vote or run for office in “adult politics,” but they experiment as students to determine what degree of power they have to influence the ways schools are run (Bandura, 1997). As in CIVED 1999 (Torney-Purta et al., 2001), ICCS 2009 and 2016 assessed students’ attitudes toward the value of student participation in civic-related activities at school. Results showed high levels of student support for the value of participating at their schools and that females tended to be more supportive of participation than male students (Schulz et al., 2010, 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to measure aspects related to this topic, with a modified item set focusing on perceptions of the value of student participation at their schools.

Students’ attitudes toward the political system: Recent years have witnessed signs of increasing political instability in many societies, amongst them even long-established democracies (Diamond, 2015, 2021; Mair, 2002). More voters have been reported to have abandoned their loyalties to established political parties and are turning to populist parties or candidates (Boogards, 2017). Frequently, these developments have been linked to the increased alienation of citizens from civic institutions, in particular, from traditional political parties, increasing economic inequalities, and as a response to growing globalization and migration (Hobolt et al., 2016). Across different countries, supporters of populist candidates, movements, and parties tend to support democracy as well as to express dissatisfaction with its implementation, however, there is also evidence of cross-national differences in the sociodemographic profiles and political features (Rovira Kaltwasser & Van Hauwaert, 2020). In particular in the Latin American region, the role of social movements has been emphasized in its importance for mobilizing citizens in support for social change (Donoso, 2017). For ICCS 2022, the student questionnaire asks about students’ agreement or disagreement with different statements related to the political system, its institutions, and its representatives, encompassing both positive and negative perceptions.

Student acceptance of restrictions during a national emergency: The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 became an unprecedented challenge to democratic governance in terms of a wide range of restrictions placed on individual freedom and the suspension of citizen rights and democratic processes (Marzocchi, 2020; Landman & Di Gennaro Splendore, 2020). There is also evidence that it affected public perceptions of government and society (Krastev & Leonard, 2020). To assess the views of young people regarding these issues, ICCS 2022 includes a question about students’ acceptance of restrictions imposed by governments during a national emergency.

Students’ trust in institutions: As in earlier IEA studies of civic and citizenship education (Torney et al., 1975; Torney-Purta et al., 2001), ICCS asked students about their trust in a range of institutions. Across countries, results from 2009 showed that students tended to express the lowest levels of trust in political parties and the highest levels of trust in courts of justice (Schulz et al., 2010). Furthermore, in countries with relatively high levels of perceived corruption, and low scores on indices of government efficiency, students with higher levels of civic knowledge expressed less trust in civic institutions, while positive correlations between civic knowledge and trust were recorded in countries with low indices of corruption (Lauglo, 2013). Results from the second ICCS cycle found, in several countries, increases in trust in institutions (Schulz et al., 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to assess students’ trust in groups and institutions with a largely unmodified item set, which will allow the measurement of changes over time. Furthermore, it includes two new additional items reflecting trust in scientists and the students’ teachers.

Students’ perceptions of threats to the world’s future: It has been reported that students express concern about global issues including those regarding poverty, hunger, wars, overpopulation, and the environment (Holden, 2007; Oscarsson, 1996; Rubin, 2002). In ICCS 2016, students were asked to rate the seriousness of a broad range of threats to key aspects of civilization. More than half the students considered pollution, terrorism, water shortages, food shortages, infectious diseases, climate change, and poverty as threats to the world’s future. These aspects are also reflected in writings concerned with global education that aim to broaden student perspectives beyond national contexts (Burnouf, 2004; Hicks, 2003). Overall, these ratings provide an indication of student optimism or pessimism, and responses to individual items provide a perspective on profiles of concern. Results from ICCS 2016 showed that concerns about these issues tended to be influenced by local contexts in participating countries (Schulz et al., 2018b). The ICCS 2022 student questionnaire uses a slightly revised set of items but will allow measuring perceptions over time for some of the issues, including those related to threats due to infectious diseases (such as COVID-19) and climate change.

Students’ attitudes toward the influence of religion in society: There is evidence about associations between religious beliefs and attitudes toward social issues (van der Toorn et al., 2017), and it has also been identified as an important catalyst of civic participation (see Ekström & Kwalem, 2013; Guo et al., 2013; Pancer, 2015; Putnam & Campbell, 2010; Storm, 2015; Verba et al., 1995). However, comparative research has also indicated that while political engagement is positively associated with active engagement in religious organizations, religiosity in itself can also be a deterrent for political action (Omelicheva & Achmed, 2018). Results from an international option for ICCS 2009 and 2016 showed that most students did not endorse religious influence on society, and that endorsement was higher among those with lower levels of civic knowledge and higher levels of attendance of religious services (Schulz et al., 2010, 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to measure students’ attitudes toward religious influence as part of an international option within the international student questionnaire.

Students’ expectations of the future of Europe: Recent opinion surveys among European citizens have shown that majorities expect that their children’s life will be more difficult than their own (European Commission, 2014). Further, adult citizens expected Europe’s influence to be stronger in comparison with countries like Brazil, India, and Japan but also weaker when compared with the influence of China or the United States (European Commission, 2018a). The ICCS 2016 European student questionnaire contained a question with possible scenarios for the European future, and students tended to be most concerned about increased terrorism and the influence of non-European powers (Losito et al., 2018). ICCS 2022 continues to assess perceptions of European future with a modified item set.

Students’ attitudes toward cooperation among European countries: Recent opinion polls have indicated that, despite a general surge in anti-European sentiment in some member countries, majorities among European citizens support decision-making about important issues at the European level, especially in relation to migration and refugees, fighting terrorism, security and defense policy, energy policy, and the environment (European Commission, 2018a). In addition to this, results from the Standard Eurobarometer survey showed that European citizens consider immigration as one of the major challenges that the EU is currently facing (European Commission, 2018b). The European student questionnaire in ICCS 2009 included a question measuring students’ perception of harmonization in the European context, and results showed high levels of agreement with common European policies (Kerr et al., 2010). The European ICCS 2016 student questionnaire included a question measuring students’ endorsement of cooperation between European countries regarding a range of different issues, and most students tended to be supportive of European cooperation (Losito et al., 2018). The ICCS 2022 European student questionnaire continues to ask about views on European cooperation. Furthermore, the instrument includes an additional question asking students about their views on European cooperation in relation to environmental issues.

Students’ attitudes toward the European Union: According to recent opinion surveys, majorities among Europeans perceived the EU as a safe place in a troubled world (European Commission, 2018a), and associated the EU with possibilities to travel, study, and work anywhere with the Euro as a common currency and with lasting peace (European Commission, 2018b). The European regional survey of ICCS 2009 showed that support for the establishment of centralized European institutions was not particularly strong, and that support for further enlargement varied considerably across participating countries (see Kerr et al., 2010). The European student questionnaire for ICCS 2016 included a question containing statements about the EU, and the surveyed lower-secondary students tended to express positive attitudes toward the EU (Losito et al., 2018). Attitudes toward the EU continue to be of interest and are part of ICCS 2022 and will be measured through an item set in the European student questionnaire, which combines items from the previous survey with newly developed ones.

Students’ attitudes toward authoritarian government practices in Latin America: Surveys in the Latin American region have shown considerable support for authoritarian government practices among adults and adolescents, and majorities among adult citizens supported non-democratic governments if they solved economic problems (United Nations Development Programme, 2004) and that support for non-democratic government was lowest among more educated citizens (Cox, 2010). The Latin American student questionnaire, in ICCS 2009, included items measuring the endorsement of authoritarian government practices and the justification of dictatorships (see Schulz et al., 2011). Results showed that considerable proportions of lower secondary students in all participating countries showed support for non-democratic government practices, and that majorities saw dictatorships justified in case they provided economic benefits or more security. The Latin American student questionnaires in ICCS 2016, including the same item set and results, showed that levels of support for authoritarian government and justification of dictatorship remained largely unchanged since 2009 (Sandoval-Hernández et al., 2019; Schulz et al., 2018a). ICCS 2022 measures students’ endorsement of authoritarian government practices with a reduced set of identical items.

3.2.3 Attitudes Toward Civic Roles and Identities

The following constructs reflecting student attitudes toward civic identities are measured as part of the international student questionnaire or the European and Latin American student questionnaires in ICCS 2022:

  • Perceptions of good citizenship behavior

  • Students’ sense of European identity (European student questionnaire)

  • Students’ expectations of their own individual future (European and Latin American student questionnaires)

Students’ perceptions of good citizenship behavior: Similar to earlier IEA studies of civic and citizenship education (Torney et al., 1975; Torney-Purta et al., 2001, p. 77f), ICCS 2009 measured students’ perceptions of the importance of different types of behaviors for “good citizenship” and identified subdimensions concerned with conventional and with social-movement-related citizenship behavior (Schulz et al., 2010). Based on data from CIVED 1999 and ICCS 2009, Hooghe and Oser (2015) observed an increase in the support of engaged citizenship norms while duty-based citizenship norms became less widely supported. Following Kennedy’s (2006) distinction between active (conventional and social-movement-related) from passive citizenship elements (national identity, patriotism, and loyalty), ICCS 2016 used additional items to measure more passive forms of citizenship behavior adding a third factor that reflected personally responsible citizenship (Schulz et al., 2018b). Re-analyses of ICCS 2016 data also showed considerable variation across and within countries in terms of students’ citizenship profiles (Treviño et al., 2021). In addition to asking students’ views about the importance of citizen behavior related to the two first dimensions (conventional and social-movement-related citizenship), ICCS 2022 includes new items reflecting students’ perceptions of the importance of global citizenship behavior (such as showing interest in other cultures and languages or engaging in support of global issues).

Students’ sense of European identity: European identity has been an important theme of debate over the past decade within the EU (Alnæs, 2013; Checkel & Katzenstein, 2009; Delanty & Rumford, 2005; Duchesne, 2008; European Commission, 2012; Herrmann et al., 2004; Karolewski & Kaina, 2006, 2013; Spannring et al., 2008), in particular following the establishment of European institutions, the integration of EU member countries, and the Treaty on the European Union (Treaty of Maastricht) and their implications on European identity and citizenship (Osler & Starkey, 2008). ICCS 2009 showed that, while most students regarded themselves as Europeans, relatively few students viewed their European identity as more important than their national identity (Kerr et al., 2010). Based on a comparable set of items, the European ICCS 2016 questionnaire showed considerable increases in young people’s identification with Europe between 2009 and 2016 (Losito et al., 2018). ICCS 2022 continues to measure young European’s perceptions of their identification with Europe as a region.

Students’ expectations of their own individual future: In a previous part of the framework, we drew attention to the need to examine students’ expectations regarding their own individual future. There is a body of literature concerned with the measurement of beliefs about, and perceptions of the future or future time perspectives (Husman & Shell, 2008; Rizzo & Chaoyun, 2017), including those that go beyond dispositional optimism and pessimism (Lemola et al., 2010). The ICCS 2016 European student questionnaire asked students about the likelihood of finding employment and better financial conditions in the future, and results showed that most students had positive perceptions of their own life in the future (Losito et al., 2018). ICCS 2022 includes measures of students’ perceptions of their own individual future in both the European and Latin American student questionnaires. In addition, the European student questionnaire includes a question asking students about the importance of some aspects of their life in the future (e.g., to have the opportunity to work abroad, to have friends).

3.3 Engagement

In ICCS 2022, the affective-behavioral area engagement refers to students’ self-beliefs about their interest and capacity to engage, expectations of future civic action, past and present engagement, and also include constructs such as preparedness to participate in forms of civic protest and anticipated future political participation as adults. In addition, due to active involvement in civic practices open to this age group (such as school-based activities, youth organizations, or community groups), young people may now also become involved in virtual networks through social media. These newer forms of engagement receive more explicit recognition in ICCS 2022 than in previous cycles. Furthermore, it is also of interest to distinguish between engagement with different levels of the Contextual Framework (or organizational levels), which may range from participation in activities at a local level to activities that are organized at national or supra-national levels. At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that issues triggering engagement do not necessarily coincide with the levels that are the focus of engagement, for example, activities related to national or global issues may be undertaken at a local level.

Ekman and Amnå (2012) regarded civic participation (latent political participation) as distinct to the manifestation of political participation and argued for distinguishing individual forms from collective forms of engagement. Given that political passivity has been identified in many societies as a growing phenomenon, especially among young people, it is important to further distinguish unengaged from disillusioned citizens (Amnå & Ekman, 2014). While unengaged passive citizens are keeping themselves informed and are willing to consider civic engagement if needed, disillusioned passive citizens have lost faith in the possibility of influencing and have become alienated. Therefore, in addition to active engagement, basic dispositions toward engagement (interest or self-efficacy) and behavioral intentions (underlying preparedness to act) are of crucial importance when studying young people’s engagement.

ICCS 2022 conceptualizes the constructs and measures related to engagement according to the following subareas, which all cover similar aspects to those included in the content domain civic participation in the Civic Knowledge Framework:

  • Experiences of engagement: examples include students’ engagement with social media for civic-related activities, involvement in community groups or organizations, or civic-related activities at school.

  • Dispositions toward engagement: examples include students’ sense of citizenship, self-efficacy, and their interest in political and social issues.

  • Expected future engagement: examples include expected student participation in legal or illegal activities to express opinions or expected electoral and active political participation.

3.3.1 Experiences with Engagement

When studying students in lower-secondary education, it is important to keep in mind that there are limitations for this age group in terms of access to many forms of citizenship participation in society. However, there is evidence of links between youth participation and later engagement as adult citizens (Verba et al., 1995). Furthermore, having been part of civic-related activities at school has been suggested as an influencing factor for future citizenship engagement (Pancer, 2015; Putnam, 2000). In view of the latter, it needs to be acknowledged that current or past involvement in youth groups, school governance, or campaigns may play a role as a contextual factor in shaping civic-related learning outcomes.

ICCS 2022 includes measures of the following types of active students’ civic engagement:

  • Students’ engagement in organizations and groups (outside of school)

  • Students’ engagement in school activities

  • Students’ engagement using digital technologies

  • Students’ reports on behaviors related to political and ethical consumerism and on their sustainable behaviors (European student questionnaire)

Students’ civic participation in organizations and groups: Citizens’ involvement in organizations and groups can be seen as a clear indicator of civic engagement (Putnam, 2000; Van Deth et al., 1999). However, it can also be regarded as a resource for future engagement (Putnam, 1993), and in recent years a growing involvement of young people in global movements such Fridays for Future has been observed (De Moor et al., 2020). ICCS 2009 asked students about their current or past participation in organizations in their communities, such as human-rights groups, religious associations, and/or youth clubs. Similar to the findings of the CIVED study in 1999 (Amadeo et al., 2002; Torney-Purta et al., 2001), ICCS 2009 results showed that only smaller proportions among students reported that they had participated in these organizations or groups (Schulz et al., 2010). ICCS 2016 assessed students’ participation in the community with a slightly modified set of 10 items (including three optional items). Results confirmed that relatively few young people in this age group had been involved in organizations and groups in the community (Schulz, 2018; Schulz et al., 2018b). ICCS 2022 includes a set consisting of old and new items to measure past and current student engagement.

Students’ civic participation in school activities: Numerous scholars have underlined the importance of students’ experience at school for developing a sense of power to influence matters in the community (Bandura, 1997). Research has provided evidence that more democratic forms of school governance can contribute to higher levels of political engagement (see for example, Pasek et al., 2008). ICCS 2009 and 2016 included questions about a wide range of civic-related participation at school (for example, in school councils/parliaments, or in student debates) and results showed that majorities of students reported past or current participation in many of these activities at school. The findings further suggested positive relationships with civic knowledge and engagement (Schulz, 2018; Schulz et al., 2010, 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to measure past or current civic engagement within the school context using a modified set of items.

Students’ civic engagement using digital technologies: The importance of social media has risen greatly over the past years (Banaji & Buckingham, 2013; Kahne et al., 2014; Mihailidis, 2011; Rainie et al., 2012; Segerberg & Bennett, 2011) and research suggests a potential enhancement of civic participation among people when content is interactive (for example, via chat rooms or message boards) instead of the one-way communication of more traditional media (Bachen et al., 2008; Kahne et al., 2012). The ICCS 2016 student questionnaire included items that measured the extent to which students engaged with political and social issues via social media. Results showed that more active civic engagement through these channels was still limited and varied considerably across participating countries (Schulz et al., 2018b). ICCS 2022 measures students’ engagement with social media using a modified and, compared to ICCS 2016, broader set of items.

Students’ reports on behaviors related to political and ethical consumerism in Europe: The promotion of sustainable behaviors, together with the development of knowledge, skills, and values, is one of the most relevant aspects of education for sustainable development (UNESCO, 2005). As such, it is becoming increasingly recognized as an important aspect of education as a whole and is part of UNESCO’s Strategic Development Goal 4.7 (Smart et al., 2019; UNESCO, 2015). Sustainable behavior can be defined as the extent to which decisions are driven to benefit or reduce the impact on the environment (Stern, 2000). The ICCS 2022 European questionnaire includes a question asking students about their or their parents’/guardians’ consumer behaviors related to expressions of political beliefs. Another question in this instrument asks about students’ reports on the frequency of undertaking a range of sustainable behaviors.

3.3.2 Dispositions Toward Engagement

With regard to students’ dispositions toward civic engagement, ICCS 2022 distinguishes the following:

  • Students’ interest in political and social issues

  • Students’ sense of citizenship self-efficacy

Students’ interest in political and social issues: Research has shown that interest in politics is strongly influenced by socialization at home (Neundorf et al., 2017). Earlier IEA civic and citizenship education studies already included measures of student interest, which turned out to be a positive predictor of civic knowledge and participation (Amadeo et al., 2002; Torney et al., 1975; Torney-Purta et al., 2001). ICCS 2009 used a list of items covering students’ interest in a broader range of six different political and social issues, and results showed that students tended to have considerable interest in social and also political issues in their own countries but were less interested in international politics (Schulz et al., 2010). ICCS 2016 measured students’ (overall) interest in political and social issues in conjunction with a question about their parents’ interest in these issues. Results showed that students’ interest was positively associated with expected civic engagement in the future (Schulz et al., 2018b). Students’ interest in political and social issues continues to be measured in ICCS 2022 with the same item as in ICCS 2016.

Students’ sense of citizenship self-efficacy: This construct reflects students’ self-confidence in active citizenship behavior. Individuals’ “judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391) are deemed to have a strong influence on individual choices, efforts, perseverance, and emotions related to the tasks. The concept of self-efficacy constitutes an important element of Bandura’s social cognitive theory about the learning process, in which learners direct their own learning (Bandura, 1993). ICCS 2009 and 2016 included seven items reflecting different activities that were relevant for students of this age group, and results from 2016 showed that students’ confidence to participate in civic activities tended to be stronger than in the previous cycle (Schulz et al., 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to measure students’ citizenship self-efficacy with a modified and broader set of items.

3.3.3 Expected Future Engagement

Given the limitations for young people in their eighth year of schooling to actively participate in society, many aspects of civic and citizenship engagement can only be assessed by asking about expected future behavior. The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 2001; Ajzen & Fishbein, 2000) links attitudes to behaviors through intentions, and posits that attitudes influence actions through reasoned processes (that are manifested as intentions).

While political participation is one central aspect of possible future civic engagement (Verba et al., 1995), it is also important to view civic engagement as broader and reflective of all “people’s connections with the life of their communities, not merely politics” (Putnam, 1993, p. 665). In view of political developments throughout the 1970s and 1980s, scholars introduced a distinction between “conventional” (voting, running for office) from “unconventional (social movement)” activities (grass-root campaigns, protest activities) (Barnes & Kaase, 1979), with the latter type potentially including legal as well as illegal forms of engagement (Kaase, 1990).

With the recent rapid expansion of new types of political activities, Van Deth (2014) further identified problem- or community-oriented forms of participation as well as individualized and creative modes of participation (see also Theocharis & Van Deth, 2018; Weiss, 2020).

ICCS 2022 distinguishes between the following three types of expected future engagement:

  • Expectations of participating in future school-based activities

  • Expectations to participate in legal and illegal forms of civic action in support of, or in protest against, important issues

  • Expectations of political participation as adults

Students’ expectations of participating in future school-based activities: Keating and Janmaat (2015) presented results from longitudinal data in the United Kingdom suggesting that participation in school-based political activities has a positive influence on future electoral and political engagement. ICCS 2016 developed questions assessing students’ beliefs about their expectations of undertaking future civic activities within the school context (for example, voting in school elections or engaging in a public debate about school-related issues), and results showed that students’ willingness to become involved at school was higher among females and students with more interest in civic issues (Schulz et al., 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to gather data on students’ expectations of civic engagement at school with an identical item set.

Students’ expectations of participation in forms of civic action: In ICCS 2009 a set of nine items reflected students’ expectations for future involvement in protest activities (such as collecting petitions, participating in protest marches, or blocking traffic). The items related to two different dimensions of protest behavior: legal and illegal activities. Using a similar but modified question, ICCS 2016 measured forms of civic action, including those against and in support of issues. The items also included actions in support of environmental sustainability. Results confirmed earlier findings that legal activities were much more widely expected than illegal activities (Schulz et al., 2010, 2018b). Both dimensions continue to be assessed as part of ICCS 2022 with a slightly modified set of student questionnaire items that also includes new items measuring the students’ expected engagement in support of environmental causes.

Students’ expectations of political participation as adults: Young people who intend to participate in political activities have been shown to be much more likely to participate at a later point in time (Eckstein et al., 2013). ICCS 2009 and 2016 asked students about these types of behavioral intentions using a set of nine items (two of which were optional for countries) reflecting on two different constructs (expected electoral participation and expected participation in political activities). While majorities of students across participating countries expected to participate in elections, relatively few students expressed intentions to engage in more active forms of political participation (Schulz et al., 2010, 2018b). ICCS 2022 continues to assess students’ expectations of participating in political participation as adults, with an identical item set as in ICCS 2016.