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Being and Believing: Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006

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Stirring Up Hatred

Part of the book series: Palgrave Hate Studies ((PAHS))

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Abstract

After much debate, a manifesto pledge and a government defeat, the Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 enacted offences of stirring up religious hatred in a separate part of the Public Order Act 1986 and at a narrower threshold than the stirring up racial hatred offences. This chapter unravels the complex tangle of arguments that were made about religious hatred in parliament and shows how fetishes of difference were reproduced, even in calls for tolerance and integration. While what amounts to stirring up hatred might be different in relation to race and religion, the different thresholds are found to be an unsatisfactory political compromise.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Sumberg, HC 12 April 1994, col 37; Irvine, HL 12 July 1994, col 1909. See also Renfrew, HL 12 July 1994, col 1911; Lawrence, HC 12 April 1994, cols 42–3; Vaz, ibid., col 49; Ruddock, ibid., col 60; Seear, HL 12 July 1994, col 1653; Lester, ibid., col 1912; Irvine, ibid., col 1928.

  2. 2.

    Home Affairs Committee, “Racial Attacks and Harassment.” See Irvine, HL 12 July 1994, cols 1649 and 1922; Beloff, ibid., col 1652.

  3. 3.

    Kaufman, HC 12 April 1994, col 41; Lawrence, ibid., cols 42 and 43; Abbott, ibid., col 58; Beloff, HL 12 July, col 1652; Irvine, ibid., col 1927; Flather, ibid., col 1940.

  4. 4.

    Sumberg, HC 12 April 1994, col 38; Kaufman, ibid., cols 39, 42 and 51; Lawrence, ibid., cols 42–3; Vaz, ibid., col 62; Habgood, HL 16 June 1994, col 1894; Irvine, HL 12 July 1994, col 1910.

  5. 5.

    HL 12 July 1994, col 1653.

  6. 6.

    Quoted by Ruddock, HC 12 April 1994, cols 60–1.

  7. 7.

    Chief Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Choudhury [1991] 1 QB 429.

  8. 8.

    Mandla v Dowell Lee [1983] 2 AC 548.

  9. 9.

    Habgood, HL 16 June 1994, col 1894; Harries, HL 12 July 1994, col 1739; Ferrers, ibid., col 1749.

  10. 10.

    See Ferrers, HL 16 June 1994, col 1907.

  11. 11.

    HC 3 Mar 1998, cols 859–61.

  12. 12.

    See Chapter 1 on the use of this term.

  13. 13.

    HC 3 Mar 1998, col 861.

  14. 14.

    See, for example, Letwin, HC 26 Nov 2001, col 697.

  15. 15.

    HC 19 Nov 2001, col 35.

  16. 16.

    Coaker, HC 19 Nov 2001, col 108.

  17. 17.

    Lester, HL 10 Dec 2001, col 1171.

  18. 18.

    Letwin, HC 19 Nov 2001, col 46; Cormack, HC 26 Nov 2001, col 713; Buscombe, HL 27 Nov 2001, col 275; Russell, HL 28 Nov 2001, col 423; Dholakia, HL 10 Dec 2001, col 1179.

  19. 19.

    Gummer, HC 19 Nov 2001, col 83; S. Hughes, HC 26 Nov 2001, col 677.

  20. 20.

    Onslow, HL 27 Nov 2001, col 244.

  21. 21.

    See Dobson, HC 19 Nov 2001, col 53; Alton, HL 10 Dec 2001, col 1175.

  22. 22.

    “Volume I – Report.”

  23. 23.

    HL 22 April 2004, cols 446–8.

  24. 24.

    HL 22 April 2004, col 476.

  25. 25.

    Scotland, HL 5 April 2005, col 596.

  26. 26.

    “Britain Forward, Not Back,” 111–112.

  27. 27.

    A slight change to the wording of the likelihood test was also proposed, but ultimately rejected.

  28. 28.

    Goodall, “Incitement to Religious Hatred,” fn8 and fn10; Meer, “Politics of Voluntary and Involuntary Identities,” 77–8.

  29. 29.

    HC 3 May 1965, col 970.

  30. 30.

    HC 4 Mar 1976, col 1648.

  31. 31.

    [2003] EWHC 1564 (admin).

  32. 32.

    See Hare, “Crosses, Crescents and Sacred Cows,” 529.

  33. 33.

    As noted by Lord Falconer, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 233.

  34. 34.

    HC 31 Jan 2006, col 216. See also Labour MP Sadiq Khan: “We are talking about hatred creating an atmosphere in which Muslim women – British women, some of them white – wearing a hijab or scarf are spat at, insulted, sworn at and even hit” (HC 21 June 2005, col 735); and Baroness Whitaker: “the point is that the police could prosecute only when this hatred erupted into actual criminal damage – the symptom, not the cause” (HL 11 Oct 2005, col 215).

  35. 35.

    Harris, HC 21 June 2005, col 740. See also Harris, HC 21 June 2005, col 738 and HC 11 July 2005, col 638; and Davies, HC 28 June 2005, col 22.

  36. 36.

    Malik, HC 21 June 2005, col 703; Bryant, HC 11 July 2005, col 626; Harris, ibid., col 637.

  37. 37.

    Lester, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1114–5; Carmichael, HC 11 July 2005, col 620.

  38. 38.

    Lord Lester’s advocacy of this position sits in curious contrast to his movement of an amendment to the CJPOA in 1994, which sought to replace the words ‘racial hatred’ with ‘hatred.’ In arguing for this amendment, Lord Lester stated that there was a need to ensure that all religious groups would be protected from hatred and that the legislation of England and Wales should be brought in line with that of Northern Ireland (HL 16 June 1994, cols 1890–1).

  39. 39.

    Harris, HC 20 Jan 2005, col 418; Davis, HC 21 June 2005, 690; Leigh, ibid., col 728; Grieve, ibid., col 755; Carmichael, HC 28 June 2005, col 10.

  40. 40.

    Cohen, HC 21 June 2005, col 743. See also Harries, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 247.

  41. 41.

    Blears, HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1222; Whitaker, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1151; Khan, HC 21 June 2005, col 735 and HC 28 June 2005, cols 8–9; Thornberry, ibid., col 10; Cohen, ibid., col 17; Soulsby, ibid., cols 24–5; Goggins, ibid., col 28, HC 11 July 2005, col 649 and HC 31 Jan 2006, col 194; Falconer, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 169; Ahmed, ibid., col 230; Bassam, ibid., col 276.

  42. 42.

    Falconer, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 162; Whitaker, ibid., col 215.

  43. 43.

    Clarke, HC 21 June 2005, col 678.

  44. 44.

    Denham, HC 21 June 2005, col 710. See also Bryant, HC 28 June 2005, col 8; Goggins, ibid., col 29 and HC 11 July 2005, col 649; Ramsay, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 208. See Neller, “Race, Religion, Law.”

  45. 45.

    [2005] HCJAC97, 2005 SCCR 686. The initial conviction was in PF v Wilson Sh.Ct 24 October 2002, unpublished.

  46. 46.

    (1999) COD 358. There are also examples of employment tribunals ruling that Muslims are not an ethnic group for the purposes of racial discrimination protections: Nyazi v Rymans Ltd [1988] EAT/6/88, unreported; Malik v Bartram Personnel Group [1990] EAT/4343/90, unreported.

  47. 47.

    Idriss, “Religion and the ATSCA 2001,” 910–1; Meer, “Politics of Voluntary and Involuntary Identities.”

  48. 48.

    Goodall, “Incitement to Religious Hatred,” 96.

  49. 49.

    Bryant, HC 11 July 2005, col 640.

  50. 50.

    Grieve, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 214; Saltoun, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 206; Flather, ibid., col 216; Stoddart, ibid., col 260; Plant, ibid., col 264.

  51. 51.

    Khan, HC 21 June 2005, col 735; Goggins, HC 11 July 2005, col 650.

  52. 52.

    Bryant, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1111; Winnick, HC 11 July 2005, col 633.

  53. 53.

    Thornberry, HC 21 June 2005, col 721.

  54. 54.

    Hendrick, HC 21 June 2005, col 725; Soulsby, ibid., col 724 and HC 11 July 2005, col 614; Winnick, HC 11 July 2005, col 223.

  55. 55.

    Plant, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1141; Avebury, ibid., col 1154; Dobson, HC 21 June 2005; col 694; Khan, ibid., col 736; Denham, ibid., col 710; Whitaker, HL 11 Oct 2005, cols 214–5; Gould, ibid., col 259; Foulkes, HL 25 Oct 2005, col 1084; see also Meer, “Politics of Voluntary and Involuntary Identities,” 77.

  56. 56.

    Harris, HC 20 Jan 2005, col 429; Baron, HC 21 June 2005, col 744.

  57. 57.

    Carmichael, HC 21 June 2005, cols 701–2; Grieve, HC 29 June 2005, cols 72–3 and HC 11 July 2005, cols 607–8.

  58. 58.

    HC 31 Jan 2006, cols 231–2. See also Lord Mackay: “I would not engage in a conversation with someone seeking to change his race, but one might well do so with someone seeking to change his religion” (HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1112).

  59. 59.

    HC 30 June 2005, cols 93–4.

  60. 60.

    Grieve, HC 30 June 2005, cols 113 and 114; Taylor, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 229; Sutherland, ibid., col 240.

  61. 61.

    Marshall-Andrews, HC 21 June 2005, col 676; Grieve, ibid., cols 677 and 754, HC 28 June 2005, cols 25 and 31–2, HC 29 June 2005, cols 51–2, HC 11 July 2005, cols 603 and 607, and HC 31 Jan 2006, cols 205 and 209; Harris, HC 11 July 2005, col 607; Davies, ibid., col 625; Hunt, HL 25 Oct 2005, col 1073.

  62. 62.

    Grieve, HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1209, HC 21 June 2005, cols 741–2, HC 11 July, col 604 and HC 31 Jan 2006, col 211; D’Souza, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1117; Davis, HC 21 June 2005, col 690; Davies, HC 29 June 2005, col 45; Lewis, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 211; Gove, ibid., col 231.

  63. 63.

    Campbell and Cosans v United Kingdom (1982) 4 EHRR 1, para. 36. However, the ‘democratic society’ and ‘human dignity’ elements of this definition were established in relation to protection afforded to ‘philosophical convictions’ under Article 2 of Protocol 1 to the ECHR, rather than to religious beliefs. Whether Christianity, for example, always fulfils these criteria to a greater extent than problematised doctrines is debateable.

  64. 64.

    Denham, HC 21 June 2005, col 710; Khan, HC 29 June 2005, col 52; Goggins, ibid., col 69 and 11 July 2005, col 650; Falconer, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 167.

  65. 65.

    Goodall, “Incitement to Religious Hatred,” 98; Meer, “Politics of Voluntary and Involuntary Identities,” fn1 and fn4.

  66. 66.

    Harris, HC 20 Jan 2005, col 416. Among others, see also Labour MP John Denham: “The problem is not primarily the Bill as it stands … but the way in which it is perceived outside” (HC 21 June 2005, col 711).

  67. 67.

    HL 25 Oct 2005, col 1094. See also Thompson, “Freedom of Expression,” 218.

  68. 68.

    HL 8 Nov 2005, cols 520–2. See also Whitaker, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 215; Lester, HL 8 Nov 2005, col 527; Plant, ibid., cols 528–9; Phillips, ibid., col 534.

  69. 69.

    Harries, HL 8 Nov 2005, col 524; Mackay, ibid., col 537; Scotland, ibid., cols 540–1 and 546.

  70. 70.

    See Leigh, HC 21 June 2005, col 728; Gummer, HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1214.

  71. 71.

    Bryant, HC 11 July 2005, col 640; Ramsay, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 209; Ahmed, ibid., col 230.

  72. 72.

    Paisley, HC 21 June 2005, col 718; Johnson, ibid., col 732; Baron, ibid., col 745; O’Cathain, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 209.

  73. 73.

    Sandberg and Doe, “Strange Death of Blasphemy,” 985.

  74. 74.

    Winnick, HC 11 July 2005, col 632; Alli, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1123; Falconer, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 167.

  75. 75.

    Jones, HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1214; Malik, HC 21 June 2005, col 704; Starkey, ibid., col 674; Dobson, ibid., col 693; Falconer, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 166; Khan, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 213.

  76. 76.

    Winnick, HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1212 and HC 11 July 2005, col 633.

  77. 77.

    HC 21 June 2005, col 674.

  78. 78.

    Avebury, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1154; Falconer, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 167; Dubs, ibid., col 222. At the time they would have been referring to Part III of the Public Order (Northern Ireland) Order 1987. The earlier Prevention of Incitement to Hatred Act (Northern Ireland) 1970 also encompassed stirring up hatred on grounds of religious belief.

  79. 79.

    Lester, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1113 and HL 11 Oct 2005, col 175; Davis, HC 21 June 2005, col 692; Baron, ibid., col 745.

  80. 80.

    Davis, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1066 and HC 21 June 2005, col 688; Selous, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1125; Heath, HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1207; Cox, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1181 and HL 11 Oct 2005, col 199; Cassidy, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 224; Wedderburn, ibid., col 255; Alton, HL 25 Oct 2005, col 1089; Grieve, HC 30 June 2005, cols 103 and 108–9.

  81. 81.

    Fisher, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 226.

  82. 82.

    Back et al., “New Labour’s White Heart,” 446.

  83. 83.

    Bryant, HC 7 Dec 2004, cols 1054, 1111 and 1115; Blears, HC 20 Jan 2005, col 400; Malik, HC 21 June 2005, cols 703–4; Denham, ibid., cols 708–9; Goggins, HC 28 June 2005, col 28.

  84. 84.

    Blunkett, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1054; Dobson, HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1208; Mahmood, ibid., col 1216; Stevenson, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1107.

  85. 85.

    Grieve, HC 30 June 2005, col 114.

  86. 86.

    Bryant, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1115; Stevenson, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1107; Bhatia, ibid., cols 1142–3; Clarke, HC 21 June 2005, col 673; Dobson, ibid., col 692; Goggins, HC 11 July 2005, col 649; Whitaker, HL 11 Oct 2005, cols 214–5.

  87. 87.

    Kaufman, HC 21 June 2005, col 674; Bryant, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1112; Whitaker, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1151; Khan, HC 21 June 2005, col 735; Whitaker, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 214; Bassam, ibid., col 274; Winnick, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 222.

  88. 88.

    HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1178.

  89. 89.

    HL 11 Oct 2005, col 197.

  90. 90.

    HL 11 Oct 2005 col 260.

  91. 91.

    MacKay, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1111; Ahmed, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 231.

  92. 92.

    See Hannay, HL 11 Oct 2005, cols 256–7; Gould, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 258.

  93. 93.

    HL 11 Oct 2005, col 217.

  94. 94.

    Allen, HC 21 June 2005, col 718; Flather, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1147 and HL 11 Oct 2005, cols 216–7 Stoddart, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 261; Grieve, HC 31 Jan 2005, col 214.

  95. 95.

    O’Brien, cited by Johnson, HC 21 June 2005, col 732 and O’Cathain, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 210.

  96. 96.

    Grieve, HC 21 June 2005, col 753; Saltoun, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 206.

  97. 97.

    “Community Cohesion.”

  98. 98.

    Malik, HC 21 June 2005, col 704; Grieve, ibid., col 753; Flather, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 217; Plant, ibid., col 264. Alternatively, Anthias points to studies that suggest welfare and social inequality may be bigger factors in conflict than culture (“Moving Beyond,” 328) and Gillroy argues against racialised depictions of the riots as cultural rather than political (There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack, xxi).

  99. 99.

    Davis HC 21 June 2005, col 753, HC 28 June 2005, cols 19–20 and 23, HC 11 July 2005, cols 632–3 and HC 31 Jan 2006, col 213; Widdecombe, HC 21 June 2005, col 713; Grieve, HC 28 June 2005, col 20; Taylor, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 228; Stoddart, ibid., col 260.

  100. 100.

    Davis, HC 21 June 2005, col 688. See also Stoddart, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 260; Leigh, HC 31 Jan 2005, col 200; Davies, ibid., col 213 and HC 28 June 2005, col 23.

  101. 101.

    Davis, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1065 and HC 21 June 2005, cols 686 and 692; Allen, ibid., col 718; Pritchard, ibid., col 751; Hannay, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 257.

  102. 102.

    See Grieve, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 214; Saltoun, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 206; Plant, ibid., 264.

  103. 103.

    Gummer, HC 7 Feb 2005, cols 1213–4 and 1215; Grieve, ibid., col 1210; HC 31 Jan 2006, cols 207 and 212; Hunt, HL 25 Oct 2005, col 1070.

  104. 104.

    Blears, HC 20 Jan 2005, cols 398 and 432; Ahmed, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1178; Corston, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 197; Dobson, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 216.

  105. 105.

    Spink, HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1096; Davis, ibid., col 1070 and HC 21 June 2005, col 686; Baron, ibid., cols 745–6; D’Souza, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1116; Baker, ibid., col 1122; Lester, ibid., col 1113 and HL 11 Oct 2005, col 175; Taylor, ibid., col 229; Hunt, HL 25 Oct 2005, col 1071; Marshall-Andrews, HC 31 Jan 2006, col 232.

  106. 106.

    HC 21 June 2005, col 704.

  107. 107.

    For example, Lady Featherstone: “incitement to religious hatred is part of religion itself” (HC 28 June 2005, col 21) and Lord Deasi: “Most religion is involved in hating other religions” (HL 11 Oct 2005, col 236).

  108. 108.

    Blears, HC 20 Jan 2005, col 394; Ramsay, HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1109; Bryant, HC 28 June 2005, col 21 and HC 11 July 2005, col 623; Whitaker, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 214.

  109. 109.

    HC 21 June 2005, col 704. See also Baroness Whitaker: “it is at least as much about freedom from oppression as freedom of expression” (HL 11 Oct 2005, col 214) and Mahmood: “the Bill is not about the curtailment of freedom of speech, but protection for people from abuse and incitement to it” (HC 7 Feb 2005, col 1217).

  110. 110.

    HC 21 June 2005, col 747. See also Labour MP Cohen: “If … it creates a form of self-censorship against hatred that creates violence, that makes it a good law” (HC 29 June 2005, col 63).

  111. 111.

    Bauman, Life in Fragments, 163.

  112. 112.

    HC 21 June 2005, col 718.

  113. 113.

    See Van Dijk, “Political Discourse and Racism,” 57–59; Bowskill et al., “Rhetoric of Acculturation.”

  114. 114.

    Chan, HL 11 Oct 2005, col 220.

  115. 115.

    See Honig, Democracy and the Foreigner, 2.

  116. 116.

    Bagguley and Hussain, “Conflict and Cohesion,” 355.

  117. 117.

    Back et al., “New Labour’s White Hear,” 446–7.

  118. 118.

    See Stoddart, HL 11 Oct, col 261.

  119. 119.

    HC 21 June 2005, col 720. My emphasis.

  120. 120.

    See also Lord Preston: “most people welcome them and wish to see them fully integrated into our way of life” (HL 11 Oct 2005, 226); McWalter: “That is one of our society’s values, and we bring it to those of different religious persuasions” (HC 7 Dec 2004, col 1106); Slim (referring specifically to Muslims): “Somehow, we must integrate them into the British scene and the British way of life” (HL 14 Mar 2005, col 1170).

  121. 121.

    Back et al., “New Labour’s White Heart,” 450; Bagguley and Hussain, “Conflict and Cohesion,” 356.

  122. 122.

    See Fraser, “From Redistribution to Recognition?”; Keenan, “Bringing the Outside(r) In,” 306.

  123. 123.

    HL 11 Oct 2005, col 244.

  124. 124.

    See Modood, “Multiculturalism as a New Form of Nationalism?”

  125. 125.

    Meer, “Politics of Voluntary and Involuntary Identities,” 71.

  126. 126.

    Bagguley and Hussain, “Conflict and Cohesion,” 362.

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Neller, J. (2023). Being and Believing: Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006. In: Stirring Up Hatred. Palgrave Hate Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19242-5_6

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