4.1 Introduction

The Arabian Gulf as a geological entity is unique in its existence bounded by variable geomorphological terrains which are 990 km long, and its width ranges from 56 to 338 km, with a total area of 226,000 km2. Located between Iran and the northeastern Arabian Peninsula, the Gulf is considered one of the hottest sea basins on planet earth (Primavera et al., 2018). This chapter is dedicated to highlighting the major marine geological, and geo-environmental features of Kuwait; however, it is worth linking Kuwait as an integral part of the Arabian Gulf marine compartment to the totality of the Gulf. The importance of the Arabian Gulf resides in its economic, strategic, social, and environmental characteristics. The Gulf as a body of water is a valuable source of drinking water through the process of seawater desalination, food commodities like fish, shrimp, etc., navigation route for oil tankers and merchants shipping. Also, it provides recreation, and tourism activities, cooling water for power plants, and a source for offshore oil and minerals (Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b).

Sea surface temperature can reach ˃35 °C in summer (Spalding et al., 2007), and ˂20 °C in winter as surface sea temperatures (SSTs) have increased by 0.4 °C since the 1980s which is documented to be double the global average of SSTs (Al-Rashidi et al., 2009). Due to this extreme summer temperature, the Gulf can experience high evaporation rates leading to water loss, and elevated water salinity levels (˃40 PSU) (Reyolds, 1993). The bulk of seawater that reaches the Arabian Gulf originates from the high evaporation processes that generate halocline forces affecting eventually the water circulation patterns in the Gulf. By entering through the Strait of Hormuz, seawater travels to the northwest adjacent to the Iranian coastline circulating near the Kuwait/Saudi borders as it returns south to discharge from the Gulf (Reyolds, 1993).

The environmental conditions rendering the Arabian Gulf an extreme marine region stem from its natural isolation as a geological basin characterized by shallow depths (mean depth 35 m along the Arabian coast and 60 m along the Iranian coast) and limited freshwater input (Persur & Seilbold, 1973). Those high evaporation levels lead to the formation of salt flats (locally named sabkhas), and salt marshes which are considered an ecologically important habitat housing algal mats (Burt et al., 2014). Also, tidal mudflats which are a significant niche for algal mats constitute an important part of the north Arabian Gulf, specifically in Kuwait Bay (Al-Zidan et al., 2006).

Over the decades, the Arabian Gulf have experienced an increased, and rapid urban development along its coasts which resulted in multiple artificial structures like piers, breakwaters, and seawalls in significant cities along the coastline (Burt et al., 2013; Khan, 2007; Price et al., 1993). Other man-made structures that have been integrated at several regions in the gulf are oil and gas facilities that along with other infrastructures house diverse marine habitats and communities for shrimps, fish, birds, etc. (Torquato et al., 2017). In Kuwait, artificial lagoons, Khairan recreational, and residential development projects, also support a high percentage of intertidal biodiversity which is of a sandy and rocky nature (Jones & Nithyanandan, 2013). It’s worth mentioning that approximately 40% of the Gulf’s coastline has been urbanely developed, modified, and restructured over the past 50 years to support the growing human population, for multiple purposes like tourism, residential projects, and industrial facilities (Naser, 2014). Consequently, numerous dredging, land reclamation, and coastline infilling activities have occurred along the Gulf’s coastline continuously modifying it, causing serious environmental stress on its natural marine ecosystems (Sheppard, 2016). Those coastal modifications can further result in hydrological and biophysical alterations of the coastal habitats leading to a severe decline in marine species biodiversity, and abundance (Lokier, 2013).

4.2 Kuwait Marine Environment

Kuwait as an integral state member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and the Arabian Gulf environmentally and contribute greatly to the Gulf’s marine ecosystem. Its marine bottom sediment is a unique type of sediment representing various textural classes and characteristics. Over the years the marine sediments of Kuwait were the subject of many studies like Purser (1973), Mohammed and Shamlan (1977), Khalaf and Ala (1980), Al-Bakri et al. (1984).

Kuwait's marine environment is much influenced by numerous factors; one of many is the arid climate which is a major characteristic of the entire country. Other factors which also influence the sedimentological and oceanographic traits of the region are low rainfall, high evaporation rate, and high atmospheric temperature (Khalaf et al., 1984). Also, the “Shamal”, a prevailing dry northwesterly wind, plays an integral role in contributing much of the terrigenous material to the offshore marine environment through the frequent dust storms associated with this wind in particularly the months of June and July (Khalaf & Al-Hashash, 1983). That aeolian sediments transport contributes much to the total sediment budget to Kuwait marine area (Al-Abdul Razzaq et al., 1982).

4.2.1 Kuwait Bay

One of the prominent features of Kuwait territorial waters is Kuwait Bay which is a unique embayment that hosts various ecological, geological, and anthropogenic compartments. It’s a northwestern semi-enclosed water body extending westward from the Arabian Gulf with a maximum depth of 20 m reaching less than 30 m at Ras Al-Ardh area (Dames & Moore, 1983; Khalaf et al., 1984). In its northern sector, a submerged estuarine flat exists, and a steep shelf-slope extends to the south; both features border the central Kuwait Bay (Al-Matrouk & Karam, 2007). The Bay accommodates multiple industrial, tourists, and aesthetic activities, and as a result of the continuous urban development in the past decade; it has exerted environmental stress on the marine ecosystem. Such anthropogenic activities are Al-Subiya, Doha east power plants, Shuwaikh port, Doha west desalination, and power plants which can contribute to elevated seawater temperature as a result of the warm water discharge from desalination power plants. Also, organic and inorganic compounds have been introduced into Kuwait Bay as a result of wastewater effluent discharges. In addition, urban and industrial discharges are frequent events from ports and other industrial activities which are severely toxic to resident biota in the Bay (Al-Muziani et al., 1991; Al-Muziani & Jacob, 1997).

Heavy minerals in Kuwait Bay are characterized by a unique combination of minerals that share a large resemblance to the sediment of Tigris—Euphrates region in Iraq. Khalaf et al., 1982 have revealed that Kuwait sediment size classes are of polygenetic origins, and they constitute two main classes. The first class is autochthonous material-derived erosion of ancient submerged sediment, sub-recent coastal sediments, and as a result of degradation of marine biota shells. The second class was observed to be allochthonous material which has originated from onshore desert sediment transported by northwestern winds. A mixture of hornblende, mica, and pyroxenes make up the bulk of the heavy mineral content of Kuwait Bay sediments. Other minerals which originate from recent surface deposits and dust fallout are amphiboles, dolomites, epidotes, pyroxenes, zircon, tourmaline, and garnet (Ali, 1976). Also, Fig. 4.1a and b depicts main sediment textural classes, and types of sediments common in Kuwait Bay.

Fig. 4.1
2 contour maps of Kuwait Bay. a. plots main sediment textural classes using 8 legends. b. plots types of sediments using 10 legends.

a. Main sediment textural classes and b. types of sediments common in Kuwait Bay

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4.3 Offshore Geology of Kuwait

The offshore area of Kuwait is characterized by a depositional environment of a low-energy couple with little sediment transport potential (Khalaf et al., 1984). The offshore marine area is situated in the northwestern corner of the Arabian Gulf which was exposed to nature elements around 10,000 yr BP (Fairbridge, 1961). Historically, the northern regions of Kuwait’s offshore marine environment are a part of the ancient delta which is submerged in the northern part of the Arabian Gulf recently. The bottom submarine topography of the marine area was formed as a result of a geomorphic and tectonic process in the late Pliocene–Pleistocene (Kassler, 1973). Also, as it’s geologically different than other parts of the Gulf, it’s categorized as a shallow depth region that can reach a maximum depth of 30 m in the SE direction. Being diverse in its formation geology, the bottom seafloor can be categorized into five distinctive physiographic divisions like Kuwaiti Bay trough, submerged estuarine distributary channel and bar system submerged estuarine flat, shelf-slope, and the islands which are distributed along with the entire Kuwait offshore marine environment (Khalaf et al., 1984). The Tigris and Euphrates River systems play a pivotal role in supplying Shatt Al-Arab and eventually the Kuwait marine area with sediments. Aeolian materials constitute a significant percentage of sediment cores collected from different locations in the Arabian Gulf (Foda et al., 1985). More specifically, bottom sediments sampled from the northern regions of the Arabian Gulf have aeolian grains extending 70 km offshore (Emery, 1956). Foda et al. (1985), have also concluded that the contribution of dust particles from dust clouds in the northern Arabian Gulf to sea surface sediment load can be considered as a sediment transport diffusion issue. The authors have also estimated that sedimentation rates of dust origins were 0.8 mm/year which is  many orders of magnitude higher than world records of dust fallouts on earth seas (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.2
A, map of Kuwait and its neighboring countries, Kuwait has 5 factors in different patterns. B and C, photos of N A S A worldview of terra and aqua M O D I S data.

A map showing the a. trajectory of dust storms over the northern Arabian Gulf including Kuwait territorial waters which eventually contribute to marine sediment particle load (Source Al-Ghadban, 2004 after Vingoradov et al., 1973), b. image by Terra MODIS satellite, and c. image by Aqua satellite

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4.4 Effects of Water Circulation on Sediment Transport

In a study by Khalaf et al. (1984), the textural classes of Kuwait offshore marine environment are characterized by mud and muddy sediments, with relatively narrow belts of coarse-grained sediment like sand, muddy sand, and silty sand present in the nearshore shallow environments in Kuwait Bay and the southern coastline. Moreover, the study classified Kuwait's offshore marine area as either a low-energy zone or a moderate-to-high energy zone. The low-energy zone comprises most of the marine study area, however the moderate-to-high energy zone covers the sand and sandy deposits. The energy classification scheme is initially influenced by weak tidal currents which are governed by surface currents and waves generated by either locally named “Kaus”, a southeasterly prevailing wind or “Shamal”, a northwesterly wind. The coarse-grained sandy deposits in the high-energy zones are primarily composed of organic biogenic material and rock rubbles, and they originated from beach rocks, reef flats, and coastal ridges. The pattern of sediment movements to the Kuwaiti shoreline is perpendicular to the coast with net sediment transport in a parallel fashion to the shoreline (Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b). Offshore energy zones control the types of marine sediments, i.e., muddy sediments prevail where wave and current energy are considered low. Also, sand and sandy deposits prevail where energy in the area is moderate to high.

Water circulation heavily controls marine sediment transport, and anticlockwise water circulation dominates the western side of the Arabian Gulf including Kuwait’s marine area. Based on that observation, three distinctive coastal regions were classified for sediment movement along the coastline which is from the north: a. Khor Subiya, b. Kuwait Bay (KB), and c. southern coast (Lardner et al., 1993; Reyolds, 1993). The controlling tidal current/wave factors are responsible for the high concentration of suspended sediments in Khor Subiya coupled with high sedimentation transport through the channel (Al-Bakri et al., 1985). This high concentration of transported sediment made the amount of total suspended solids (TSS) around Bubyan and Failaka Islands, and in Khor Subiya higher in the magnitude of 10 than TSS in offshore marine areas. The southern region is characterized by a wintery sediment transport with an accretion-dominated mechanism, while other southern regions of headlands and reaches are subjected to erosional effects. As for Kuwait Bay, it is controlled by a modest net sediment transport, and the low-energy zone of KB experiences deposition of suspended sediments (Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b). Alosairi et al. (2011a, b) have indicated that water residence time in the Arabian Gulf was more than 3 years along the Arabian coast, and that wind/tide energies are responsible factors for seawater dispersion along the coast.

Kuwait coastline was a subject of numerous urban development projects which induced geomorphological alterations to natural marine habitats. And one of the examples of such various anthropogenic activities which led to coastline developments was new waterfronts, accommodations, tourist attractions, etc. Those projects focused on land reclamation, filling/excavations near coastal and offshore areas and dredging processes have caused substantial transport of suspended sediments into coastal waters, consequently increasing turbidity levels in the water column. Also, an increase in sediment sorption processes along with nutrient levels was evidently observed (Alosairi et al., 2011a, b). Al-Ghadban et al. (2002) have indicated that as nutrients are transferred via suspended sediments, it assists in enriching the Kuwait Bay marine ecosystem transforming it into a rich nursery ground for fish and shrimps. The amounts of sediment particles being deposited over Kuwait terrestrial and marine areas were estimated according to Kuwait Environment Public Authority to be 55 tons/km2 which contributes heavily to the total sediment load in seawater. Another significant source of sediment particles to seawater compartment is Shatt Al-Arab, which heavily contributes to total sediment concentration in the north Arabian Gulf (Saad & Al-Azmi, 2002; Al-Ghadban & El-Sammak, 2005). Moreover, Al-Ghadban (2004) has estimated that approximately 29 tons of sediments are loaded in Kuwait Bay specifically on the top layer (1 m) of surface waters which can eventually be deposited by wind and tide forces. This finding confirms the conclusion that Kuwait Bay, as a geomorphological feature of Kuwait, can receive significant amounts of suspended sediments from offshore regions as well as from Shatt Al-Arab.

4.5 Effects of Draining of the Iraqi Marshes

Transboundary environmental activities in one geographical region can result in tremendous adverse effects on indigenous biota and marine ecosystems in another region. Northern territorial waters of Kuwait have experienced alterations in sediment characteristics; hence, there is an increase in sediment deposition in the past since the construction of embanked canal termed “The Third River” (Fig. 4.3). The purpose of constructing the Third River in 1990 is to divert the Euphrates River waters before reaching the marches region (locally named Al-Ahwar) in Iraq through Shatt Al-Basra to Khor Al-Zubair to solve the increasing salinity issue in farmlands (Al-Hilli et al., 2009). Al-Ghadban et al. (1999) have confirmed that water depths in the northern region were shallower in 1998 than in previous years like 1956, 1984. Also, grain size analysis of sediment samples collected from the area revealed that finer sediments were observed in 1998 than what was reported in 1982. Overall, sedimentological assessment of the study area demonstrated a north–south sediment transport gradient from the Shatt Al-Arab region. All of the above observations indicate the sensitivity of Kuwait’s marine ecosystem to external factors like the drainage of the Iraqi marshes and the construction of the Third River.

Fig. 4.3
A map highlights the third river in the Mesopotamian marshlands. The Arabian Gulf is located on the bottom right.

(Source Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b)

Showing the Third River in the Mesopotamian marshlands

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4.6 Grain Size and Textural Classes

The classification of Kuwait’s marine sediment is based on multiple schemes such as sediment particle sizes, sediment composition, or the combination of both categories. Seven textural classes comprise surface offshore marine sediments which are described in Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.4. Also, while muddy sediment covers a large percentage of Kuwait’s area, there is another important fraction that constitutes marine sediment which is then represented by sand, muddy sand, and silty sand (Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b). In the nearshore and intertidal areas, coarse-grained sediments can be found, in Ras Ajouzah (near Kuwait Tower) in the northern regions to the south where Khairan is located. Moreover, the marine areas around Kuwaiti islands can be characterized as having the same type of sediments as Failaka, and the southern islands. Therefore, we conclude that areas comprised of coarse-grained sediments are of a limited distribution range and can be associated with shallow rocky bottoms.

Table 4.1 Textural classes of surface sediments of Kuwait offshore marine area (adopted from Khalaf et al., 1984)
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Fig. 4.4
A contour map of the textural classes of Kuwait. The legends are referral area, sand, silly sand, muddy sand, sand silt, sandy mud, silt, and mud.

(Source Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b)

Textural classes of Kuwait bottom seabed

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With a close focus on the sediment texture classification of Kuwait Bay (KB), it was observed that two categories comprised its sediment classes. (1) Allochthonous sediment materials, which originate from disintegrated onshore desert sediments as a result of force action of the prevailing northwesterly winds. (2) Autochthonous sediment materials originate from the fragmentation of fresh marine fauna shells, and the result of the erosional process of submerged ancient coastal sediment (Khalaf et al., 1982).

The granulometric and textural variation and distribution of Kuwait Bay’s marine sediments are largely driven by the following environmental factors: nature of coastline sediment, ecological surroundings of the bay, and kinetic and hydrodynamic energy of the water compartment. Moreover, the dust storm’s born fallout adds greatly to the KB sediment budget. Kuwait Bay is mostly covered with muddy sediments and is composed of mudflats in the northern section and central channel, and tidal flats in Suliabikhat Bay, a prominent geological part of KB composed of mud. These muddy sediments are principally consisting of silty clay and clayey silt types of sediments, while the southern, eastern, and western flats of KB are characterized by sandy sediments (Khalaf et al., 1982).

4.7 The Biogenic Nature of Coarse Sediment Fractions

Since the sand of Kuwait’s marine areas constitutes a considerable fraction of the coarse sediments, the biogenic components also play a role in the formation of this sand category. Biogenic sediments are the fractions derived from a biological entities such as living organisms most commonly mollusks which are composed of gastropods (snails), echinoids (sea urchins, sea cucumbers), foraminifera, bivalves, ostracodes, and sponge spicules. In addition to other petrographic materials like feldspar, quartz, and other rock fragments, 90% of the biogenic material comes from the three distinctive faunal groups which are echinoids, mollusks, and foraminifera which eventually make the coarse-grained fraction of marine sediments. Based on this biogenic material and carbonate content, nine biolithofacies groups of Kuwait’s marine sediment have been categorized as shown in Table 4.2. The abundant sediments characterizing Kuwaiti beaches, coastal reef flats originate from the fragments of cemented calcareous sandstone, and the resultant from beach rocks, while quartz predominates the northern part of the marine environment as it is concentrated in fine and very fine sand fractions which constitute 10–45% of the marine sediments (Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b).

Table 4.2 Biolithofacies sediment categories of Kuwait’s marine sediment (adopted from Al-Yamani et al., 2004a, b)
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Biogenic sediment types cover Kuwait Bay, which originates from quartz and shell fragments (constitute 60% of total sand fractions), in addition to feldspar, pellets, and oolites which exist in lower amounts in bad sediments. The following biological entities comprise the biogenic coarse-grained fraction of KB like gastropods, pelecypods (bivalves), echinoids spines and plates, ostracodes, and foraminifera. It’s been observed that those grains underwent severe micritization process as cyanobacteria (blue-green algae or filamentous endolithic algae) within the sediment which have bored into the shells of marine organisms that constitute the biogenic sediments. As a result, micrite has formed and precipitated in the bores, eventually the micritization process led to the breakdown of coarse sand grains to form fine silt and sand grains (Bathurst, 1966).

4.8 Kuwaiti Islands

Kuwait territorial waters contain nine islands that are unique in their biodiversity along with their geological and geomorphological features. For the State of Kuwait, those islands are significant and have a strategic value. They are classified into two distinctive categories according to their physiographical characteristics: (1) onshore islands located in the northern region of the Kuwait Sea and (2) offshore islands which are located in southern waters (Table 4.3; Fig. 4.5). Bubyan, Failaka, Warba, and Um Alnamil Islands are considered the largest of all of the nine islands in Kuwait territorial waters. Miskan and Awhah Islands, relatively smalls islands, are characterized as having a mesotidal regime and considered part of the Failaka Island geological structure and occupy the northern region of Kuwait Sea which are situated in a shallow platform (˂5 m below sea level). While the southern islands like Kubbar, Qaruh, and Um Almaradem have a microtidal regime situated on top of a platform of aggrading perched reef structure descending deeply for 20–30 m depths. Alternating beach rock platforms (4–46%) cover the island’s beaches along with beach-ridge sets, bioclastic material constitutes the island’s beach sediments, consisting of very coarse-to-medium sand (Buynevich et al., 2020). Also, other geomorphological features of Kuwaiti Islands are cuspate spits, thinly vegetated beach ridges and salients in addition to coral reef platforms surround the southern islands. In general, the islands are characterized by having a minor elliptical shape (˂0.6 value), while Kubbar and Qaruh Islands further in the southern region can be considered almost round in shape. Since those islands have a low elevation, they can be susceptible to sea-level rise; along with their geomorphological features like hard beach rock, sandy beaches will experience erosion–deposition patterns.

Table 4.3 Classification of Kuwaiti Islands according to their location in Kuwait Territorial Waters
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Fig. 4.5
An aerial view of Kuwait City. It has labels of Kuwait Bay, Miskan, Failka, Warbah, Bubyian, Auhah, Kubber, Qaroh, Amm Al Maradim.

A map showing Kuwait’s islands

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4.9 Offshore Petroleum Geology of Kuwait

4.9.1 Historical Overview

The history of Kuwait’s offshore oil exploration goes back to the year 1961 by conducting a threefold analog seismic survey in collaboration between Kuwait Oil Company (KCO) and Shell International Exploration and Production B.V. This endeavor culminated in multiple offshore exploration activities from the 1960s to 1980s but none of the drilled wells were intended for commercial purposes.

The geological structure of Kuwait’s offshore area is characterized by a gentle regional dip to the northeast, and all of the offshore wells have been explored at a very low relief geological structure. This monocline nature of offshore structures created stratigraphic trapping which has caused the highly potential hydrocarbon entrapment within the Middle Cretaceous reservoirs. And based on that observation, a high-resolution sequence-stratigraphic framework was conducted which has generated quantitative biostratigraphical data (Fig. 4.6). Those data were used to perform a detailed paleoenvironmental and chronostratigraphic calibration of this data series (Al-Fares et al., 1998).

Fig. 4.6
A map of locations and categories based on oil exploration operations in Kuwait offshore. The legends include oil wells, oil shows, gas shows, oil fields, and gas fields.

(Source Al-Fares et al., 1998)

Map of Kuwait offshore area depicting well locations and categories based upon oil exploration operations

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The first drilled wells revealed 720 barrels of oil per day (BOPD) of 38°–40° API oil quality from Lower Cretaceous Ratawi limestones, but unfortunately, production declined after due to low amounts of oil discovered (Al-Fares et al., 1998). However, in the 1990s, a more in-depth investigation was carried out by conducting a quantitative biostratigraphical study for the Lower to Middle Cretaceous interval. From the 11 drilled wells, 500 samples (cuttings) were analyzed and revealed multiple fossil microfaunal distributions of foraminifera, nanoplanktons, and ostracodes (Robertson Research International, 1996; Varol Research, 1996; Lacustrine Basin Research, 1996).

In 2019, the KOC has signed an offshore drilling service contract with renowned drilling expert Haliburton Co. The drilling operation will include six high-pressure/high-temperature exploration wells on two jack-up rigs in offshore Kuwait territorial waters. Planned drilling operations were supposed to start in mid-2020, but the coronavirus pandemic that struck the world delayed the projects. The forecasting goals of Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC) are to increase the production capacity to 4 million B/D by 2020.

4.9.2 Oil Pollution in Kuwait Territorial Waters

One of the busiest regions in the world for shipping oil as a commercial commodity is the Arabian Gulf which receives large numbers of oil tankers and ships to load crude oil in addition to other goods (Karam, 2011). Two-thirds of the world’s crude oil reserves are in the Arabian Gulf countries which produce about 25% of the world’s oil. Among this percentage, the State of Kuwait has 11% of that estimate (1.7 million bbl/d). Also, 27% of the total gross oil imports for the Organization of Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) is the gross oil imports of the Arabian Gulf countries for 2002 which is averaged 10.6 million barrels per day (bbl./d) (www.eia.doe.gov, 2001) (Fig. 4.7).

Fig. 4.7
A pie chart of the net oil exports from the Persian Gulf for 1999 in percentage. Saudi Arabia: 44, Iran: 15, Kuwait: 11, Iraq: 13, U A E: 12. and Qatar: 5.

Note Bahrain net oil export was 0.02 MBPD

Net oil exports from the Persian Gulf for 1999 (million barrels per day–MBPD)

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There is always a chance of oil spillage if crude oil is transported via the seas to other energy-demanding countries around the world. As a result, approximately 25,000 metric tons of crude oil are spilled per year into the Arabian Gulf from multiple sources like offshore drilling operations and pipelines. Also, 16, 800 metric tons of crude oil find a route to the Arabian Gulf from natural seeps, coastal refineries, and municipal and non-refining industrial wastes (Hayes & Gundlach, 1977).

It is worth mentioning that as there is an accidental oil spillage in Kuwait’s marine environment, there is a natural oil seepage. A study by Al-Sammak et al. (2005) has documented two sites on sea floor in the marine area between Qaruh and Umm Al-Maradem Offshore Islands where oil is naturally seeping to the surface. And natural oil footprint analysis has confirmed that the seeping oil is not caused by leaks or spills from foreign oil tankers, rather its Kuwait crude oil. Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) analysis of collected sediment samples from the seepage area (22 km2) revealed that TPH concentrations were 200–500 µg/g.

Kuwait's economy primarily depends on petroleum exports which led to active shipping and oil tanker traffic in the Arabian Gulf water frequently transporting crude oil to other countries as an energy commodity. Those activities made oil spills more common in the region whether it was due to accidental spillage incidents due to offshore oil platforms, oil tankers, and leakages from ships or pipeline networks, offshore drilling, and oil exploration operations (RMSI, 2020). All of the aforementioned activities led to the firm belief that oil pollution is to be considered a significant environmental concern in the Arabian Gulf.

Historically, Kuwait's marine environment suffered an environmental catastrophe due to political/war conflicts between neighboring countries. The 1991 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait resulted in a devastating marine environment from the spillage of 6–10 million barrels of oil from export terminals and oil tankers (Thorhaug, 1992; Al-Ghadban et al., 1996). The resultant oil spills during the Gulf War have depleted 2% of Kuwait’s oil reserves (RMSI, 2020) which led to Kuwait losing about $60 million/day in revenues which sums up to $22 billion in a year.

However, the impact of oil pollution on marine ecosystems of Kuwait including marine resources like fish is not well understood. Toxicological work by Karam (2011) and Karam et al. (2019, 2021 IN PRESS) have demonstrated that a water-accommodated fraction of Kuwait crude oil mixed with seawater can result in toxic effects such as mortality in marine fish species native of Kuwait marine areas like sea bream and orange-spotted grouper.

4.9.3 Oil Spills Data Acquisition

Data concerning oil spills for onshore and offshore Kuwait marine environment are collected by two scientific entities like Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) and Kuwait Environment Public Authority (KEPA). Unfortunately, the available data cannot differentiate between natural and accidental oil spill events in the region.

One of the methods used to monitor, document, and collect data on oil spill events is using satellite remote sensing image systems and geographic information system (GIS). Those tools enable research and regulatory authorities to assess and map the magnitude and extent of oil spills. Also, it enables the processing of satellite imagery data to estimate different parameters of the oil spill event like the volume of the oil spill and the depth of oil over water (0.87 µm). To process Sentinel-1 image data, SNAP software (European Space Agency Software) was utilized heavily to identify oil spill hotspots and their frequency in Kuwait’s marine region. Figure 4.8 demonstrates the methodology adopted by KEPA, KISR, and RMSI consulting companies to document oil spill events.

Fig. 4.8
A flowchart begins with the documentation of oil spill events from E P A, K I S R, and R M S I data and after acquiring satellite imageries, image processing from E R D A S, S N A P, and Arc G I S, and mapping of oil extent, it ends in hotspot analysis.

Flowchart of oil spill events documentation adopted by KEPA, KISR, and RMSI

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Sentinel-1 and Landsat 1–5 MSS (80 m) (RMSI, 2020) were proved to be a reliable instruments to monitor not only oil spills in the Kuwait sea area, but also for various physicochemical parameters like sea surface temperature, chlorophyll-a concentrations, etc. In addition to multiple water quality parameters that assist in assessing the adverse impact of oil spills on the marine ecosystem. The Sentinel-1 satellite permitted the acquisition of multiple oil spill data concerning the following sites in Kuwait Territorial Waters and in the neighboring regions like Bubyan, Failaka, and Qaru Islands’ sea area, Ahmadi, and Al-Basra Terminal in Iraq. While the Landsat 1–5 MSS satellite has acquired data for offshore marine areas. Also, GIS was used heavily for oil spill identification and classification in SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) imagery system where it can detect differences in oil and water signatures. The second stage is to process the images through SNAP software to determine the extent of the oil spill and classify oil and water in the vicinity of the spillage zone. It was observed from the analyzed data that most of the offshore oil spill events have occurred from an approximate distance of about 100–150 km from Kuwait City (Fig. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9
A map depicts the oil spill in Kuwait offshore at 100 to 150 kilometers from Kuwait City using various legends. It has labels of the states in Kuwait, neighboring nations, and the Arabian gulf.

Map depicting oil spills in Kuwait offshore marine area

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Hotpot analysis of all 39 offshore oil spill events documented by remote sensing and GIS has demonstrated that most of the spill events have occurred in the southeastern region of Kuwait Territorial Waters. This result can be explained by the fact that the southern region is where all the oil industry facilities are located, in addition to where most transport ships and oil tankers traffic exist, making this area a hotspot for frequent oil spill events (RMSI, 2020).

4.9.4 Oil Spills Response Strategy

The Kuwait Regional Convention (23rd April 1978) was formulated to serve as a central agreement for the protection of the marine environment. Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency in the GCC area was the main objective of this convention to monitor and control marine pollution that originates from various sources. Also, cooperation between states of the region should focus on the environmental management of water bodies in case of pollution scenarios (MEMAC, 2016).

The Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) has prepared a manual for the Regional Organization for the Protection of Marine Environment (ROPME) state members (Fig. 4.10) which contains information and instructions for joining marine pollution operations. Also, it is considered as a guideline for pollution incident management, strategy, and policymaking.

Fig. 4.10
A map of the R O P M E sea area with labels of state members contains information and 5 geographical locations.

A map depicting the ROPME sea area with state members

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In the case of oil pollution in the ROPME sea area, precautionary preventative measures have to be taken to avoid pollution by hazardous and noxious chemicals like oil in offshore marine areas (ROPME, 2011). Therefore, in 2000, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) took on the responsibility to adopt the Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Cooperation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances (OPRC-HNS Protocol) in ROPME Sea Area (RSA). The primary goal of this protocol is for RSA state members to cooperate and provide mutual assistance in preparing and combating chemical pollution incidences that threaten the integrity of RSA's marine resources and ecosystem.

4.10 Conclusion

In this chapter, we have highlighted the salient features of Kuwait’s onshore and offshore marine geology. There are numerus natural and anthropogenic factors that continuously govern the marine geology of Kuwait forever interacting with such dynamic system. Increasing coastal rapid urban development projects, elevated oil exploration operations, and accidental oil spillages from oil tankers all threaten to change the main features of Kuwait’s marine geological compartment. Therefore, altering its composition as finer muddy sediments are incoming from transboundary regions like Iraq, and from newly developed coastal dredging projects. Those onshore modifications will ultimately alter the biophysical and biological characteristics of coastal habitats, thus affecting marine species biodiversity and abundance. By understating all anthropogenic and ecological factors governing Kuwait’s marine geology, environmental mitigation and rehabilitation will be possible in the future. Moreover, in-depth research of marine sediment transport patterns from coastal land reclamation/dredging projects, and from transboundary regions like Khor Zubair, Shatt Al-Arab in Iraq will assist in assessing how geological aspects of the marine environment will respond to such external and internal factors.