Keywords

1 Introduction

Kupang City is located along Kupang Bay in the northwestern part of Timor Island. The area is about 260.12 km2, consisting of land (180.27 km2) and sea (79.86 km2). The ratio of land to water area in Kupang City is 5:2, which shows that Kupang City has a large coastal area directly bordering Kupang Bay), and many residents, therefore, interact with coastal and marine resources.

The terrain of Kupang City is relatively flat, the slope level varies between 0.15%, and the altitude is 0–300 m above mean sea level (AMSL). Therefore, it can be concluded that Kupang City is mainly a lowland area. The terrain of Kupang City is generally low elevation at in the north, gradually rising to the south. In the north, there are three subzones located along the coast including Alak (120 m. AMSL), Kota Lama (30 m. AMSL), and Kelapa Lima (50 m. AMSL). These areas are classified as areas vulnerable area to extreme weather, such as rising sea levels and strong winds. However, the lithology of Kupang City is dominated by limestone reefs, which are sufficient to withstand the prevalent rate of abrasion.

In terms of climatology, Kupang City is characterized as follows: (1) the rainy season lasts four months on average (March–October), while the dry season lasts four months (November–February); (2) in 2018, the average rainfall level was 1371.1 mm3, while it was 1452.49 mm3 for the entire NTT Province; (3) in 2018, there were 95 rainy days on average, while NTT Province as a whole had 96; and (4) the lowest temperature is 26.3 °C and the maximum is 39 °C, whereas the lowest temperature in NTT Province is 22.1 °C and the highest is 32 °C.

Kupang City often experiences extreme weather, such as rainfall beyond the normal frequency, or a shorter rainy season (Faqih et al., 2015). Extreme climate in Kupang City, with short rainy seasons, causes streams to dry up and well levels to drop (Kota Kita & UNDP-SCDRR, 2015). The tropical cyclones that threatened Kupang city tend to undoubtedly increase in frequency and intensity. Overall, it is projected that Kupang will experience more extreme dry seasons compared with the other places at East Nusa Tenggara.

2 Problems and Challenges

Typically cities in Indonesia, Kupang City are a destination for migration and urbanization of the population with educational and economic motivations. As the capital of the Province of East Nusa Tenggara (NTT), this city has several higher education institutions and economic activities that have attracted migration and urbanization, especially for young people who want to continue their education at a university or are simply looking for a better job. Currently, Kupang City has a population density of 2.570,31 people/km2, with a 2.9% annual population growth rate (Kupang City Central Agency of Statistics, 2021).

With the increasing population and their mobility, Suwari et al. (2020) found that there is an increase in GHG emissions such as NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide) concentrations in Kupang City. The study showed that a higher concentration of NO2 was found on roadsides, amounting on average to 22,16 μg/m3. The increase in the number of vehicles causes traffic jams along some main roads and could be the major factor, which contribute to the higher NO2 concentration. Moreover, mostly public transportations (angkot) are old and generate more emissions.

Imelda et al. (2017) agreed with Suwari et al. that the two primary sources of GHG emissions are energy (including transportation and power) and trash. Kupang’s annual energy consumption has risen in tandem with the city’s population and economy, both of which rely on energy. In Kupang, fossil fuels such as diesel and coal are generally used to generate power, while gasoline is used for transportation. Kupang also remains highly dependent on fossil fuels, notably kerosene, the most common cooking fuel.

Waste treatment in Kupang is still in open dumping pits. Kupang generates 382 m3/day of municipal trash, of which only 268 m3 can be disposed of in landfills (POKJA AMPL Kota Kupang, 2014). Sixty-seven percent of communities had not received appropriate waste management services (POKJA AMPL Kota Kupang, 2014), despite the fact that trash output is rising in tandem with population increase. Furthermore, the waste transportation fleet continues to be inefficient, resulting in rubbish that cannot be collected. According to POKJA AMPL Kota Kupang (2014), in 78.80% of local communities solid waste is not treated; 61.3% still burn their domestic waste. Medical waste is still disposed of at the final disposal site because there is inadequate incineration. There are not enough temporary disposal sites. Furthermore, local communities have yet to allocate property for the construction/location of temporary dump sites.

Disasters are increasing as a result of changes in the climate. During dry seasons with minimal rainfall, land fires are triggered in Kupang City. Drought becomes a regular occurrence throughout the dry season in Kupang. For purposes of comparison, The Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_language Badan Meteorologi, Klimatologi, dan Geofisika or BMKG) in 2020 reported that the location with the highest estimated rainfall is Cirebon City (West Java), while Kupang has the lowest rainfall. The average rainfall in Kupang in 2019 is 310 mm, while Cirebon has an average rainfall of ±2260 mm/year. Rainy days in Kupang City are considerably less frequent than in Cirebon. As a result, droughts are more likely in Kupang than in other cities such as Cirebon. This water situation in Kupang City will be directly impacted by climate change risk.

Most households in Kupang City have a water tank to keep water when the rain comes. Only 2% of the population drink mineral water from companies, while 24% of the population get the water from well. Some people buy water from companies for IDR 80.000–250.000 per 5 l (USD 5.57–17.40). Taking into account the minimum water consumption for cities with less than 1 million inhabitants is 150 l/day, then, buying water at the rate of IDR 80.000–250.000 (USD 5.57–17.40)/5 l is quite a burden. Kota Kita (2015) has estimated that poor people spend around 20–50% of their income for water only (Theodolfi et al., 2015). In response to the increased population and greater levels of economic activity, water demand is also increasing. Besides the water crisis, a long dry season and low rainfall also cause the fire both houses and land.

Based on the report of Kupang City Health Department, there were 206 residents affected by Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) during January to February 2020, with three persons dead. DHF disease attack in 2020 is still relatively low compared to the same period in 2019, which reached 400 cases. Maulafa subdistrict is the area with the highest DHF cases in Kupang City. The Indonesian Ministry of Health said the Extraordinary Event in the case of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) in East Nusa Tenggara in general was triggered by the problem of improper waste management.

The DHF has become a health problem for a long time in Kupang City, due to a lack of awareness of maintaining the cleanliness of the environment in residential areas, so that mosquitoes can easily live in the area and spread this dengue fever. The dengue mosquito lays its eggs in trapped water-filled, where this is usually found in rubbish that holds rainwater or any other water. Lack of awareness of maintaining cleanliness, some people refuse to sprinkle abate into the water reservoir because it will pollute the water to be consumed.

Another challenge for Kupang city aside of dry area is strong wind which come every year. This is because the air pressure of NTT is 1009–1012 Mb (BMKG, 2020). Such natural phenomenon will have a direct influence on shipping safety, food supply, property, tourism, and infrastructure, all of which will have an impact on people’s lives, particularly in coastal areas.

The most vulnerable areas from increased sea level and the wave is three sub-districts where located on the coast, namely: Kelapa Lima, Kota Lama, and Alak. However, the closest area to sea level is Kota Lama, located 30 m AMSL; and has the highest population density (12.742 people/km2). While, there are three sub-districts where territory is not located in the coastal area but often hit by strong winds, namely Kota Raja, Oebobo, and Maulafa.

3 Policy Direction, Recommendations, and Strategy

3.1 Kupang City Policy Directions

The Indonesian government has developed a national action plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (RAN-GRK) as well as a national action plan to adapt to climate change (RAN-API). The RAN-GRK was formalized through Presidential Decree No. 61/2011, which elaborates President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s emissions reduction pledge announced at the G20 meeting in Pittsburgh in 2009.

Unfortunately, RAD-GRK terminates at the provincial level in several provinces and ends at the district/city planning level in others. As a result, just a few cities in Indonesia have developed a strategy to minimize greenhouse gas emissions. Since Indonesia’s national transfer system follows the program created by the appropriate district/city, mitigation and adaptation of climate change is not developed optimally due to limited budged condition.

Based on the midterm development policy document, RPJM Kupang City 2017–2022, seven strategies were applied by the local government to achieve the vision “Livable, Intelligent, Independent and Prosperous, with Corruption-Collusion-Nepotism Free Governance”, specifically, (1) Controlling balanced urban growth; (2) Inclusive economic growth; (3) Encouraging creative economy businesses based on science and technology and environmental insight; (4) Smart City design; (5) Institutional and public management reforms; (6) Cooperation with other regions/countries; (7) Addressing major issues in the medium term (high priority). Many programs and activities can be considered as entry points to promote a climate resilience program for both mitigation and adaptation in Kupang City. Of particular note, is Mission 4: “To develop Kupang City according to an integrated Metropolitan and Environmental Strategy” (Fig. 21.1).

Fig. 21.1
A 7-phased diagram of an environmentally friendly metropolis. Groundwater conservation, waste management, 100% drinking, sanitation, space utilization, transportation, disaster, and I T utilization.

The Integrated Metropolitan and Environmental Strategy of Kupang City. (Source: RPJMD of Kupang City, 2017–2022)

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3.2 Recommendations and Strategy

The https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_language BMKG, a Kupang-based institution, is in charge of monitoring natural disasters in the city. Additionally, there is BPBD (Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah/Regional Disaster Management Agency), which is in charge of controlling potential regional catastrophes. According to the head of BPBD Kupang, Kupang has an early warning system but it is not operated optimally. Because BPBD works with BMKG, when a catastrophe warning is issued, BKMG sends an official warning letter to BPBD. The formal letter will then be processed by BPBD before being sent to the public via houses of worship, subdistricts, and the news media. Unfortunately, the Kupang administration lacks disaster warning equipment, despite the fact that the city of Kupang is particularly vulnerable to disasters as a result of climate change. Overall, Kupang City requires an integrated early warning system (IEWS) that incorporates strong warning and rapid reaction, resulting in reduced disaster-related deaths and economic losses, improving societal resilience and long-term development.

The Head of the Kupang City Environment and Sanitation Office also stated that waste processing is still done traditionally, due to a lack of funding. Kupang City’s solid waste system has not yet transitioned to the use of a sanitary landfill system. Thus solid waste management takes up a huge amount of land. Household waste is disposed of at a makeshift rubbish dump, from where it is subsequently collected by waste management authorities in trucks and sent to open landfills. Improving energy networks should incorporate renewable and non-renewable energy sources, as well as generating energy sources for appropriate technologies. Based on this situation, the authors suggest a set of recommendations and strategy, in line with the shortcomings and challenges that have been discussed with the stakeholders of Kupang. The strategic recommendations proposed are as follows (Table 21.1).

Table 21.1 Recommendations for priority sectors
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4 Conclusion

Kupang City is one of Indonesia’s cities most vulnerable to climate change-related calamities including drought, rising sea levels, and windstorms. Such climate disaster risks have a direct negative influence on ecosystems, property, and infrastructure sustainability. These conditions affect people’s lives, health, and safety in many harmful ways. What is more concerning is that climate change operates in negative synergy with other major developments, such as urbanization, creating extra hazards and vulnerabilities for many people. The most critical problems faced by Kota Kupang are tropical winds and acute dry seasons. Furthermore, Kupang still lacks adequate handling of waste streams, water and sanitation, as well as GHG emissions. In sum, we have developed a set of recommendations that are tailor-made for the improvement of Kupang City taking into account its special local circumstances.