Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed not only the true value of nature and open public spaces, but it reified the presence and persistence of racism in and throughout American institutions. As the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other public health officials encouraged people to visit parks and green spaces as a way to be safe against COVID-19 transmission, the toxic presence and persistence of racism experienced by Black, Indigenous and People of Color (BIPOC) was fully exposed. Through an examination of built, social and natural environments, this chapter will delve into historical and contemporary inequities stemming from structural racism. The toxic interrelationship between race-/class-based privilege and place, as well as its impact on nature and green space access and connection, particularly throughout the pandemic will be critically assessed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aguilera, J. (2020). White woman who called police on a black man at central park apologizes, says ‘I’m Not a Racist’ – May 26, 2020. TIme. Retrieved December 3, from https://time.com/5842442/amy-cooper-dog-central-park/
Annerstedt van den Bosch, M., Mudu, P., Uscila, V., Barrdahl, M., Kulinkina, A., Staatsen, B., Swart, W., Kruize, H., Zurlyte, I., & Egorov, A. I. (2016). Development of an urban green space indicator and the public health rationale. The Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 44(2), 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494815615444
Antebi, J. (n.d.). Bridging the divide: Citizen participation versus urban renewal, and the struggle for community in Trenton, New Jersey. Princeton University. Department of History. Retrieved November 24, from https://proces.princeton.edu/sites/cbli/files/media/jantebidobinprizeapplication.pdf
Artiga, S., Hill, L., & Haldar, S. (2021). COVID-19 cases and deaths by race/ethnicity: Current data and changes over time – October 8, 2021. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved November 28, from https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/issue-brief/covid-19-cases-and-deaths-by-race-ethnicity-current-data-and-changes-over-time/
Balseviciene, B., Sinkariova, L., Grazuleviciene, R., Andrusaityte, S., Uzdanaviciute, I., Dedele, A., & Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J. (2014). Impact of residential greenness on preschool children’s emotional and behavioral problems. The International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11(7), 6757–6770. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110706757
Berman, M. G., Kross, E., Krpan, K. M., Askren, M. K., Burson, A., Deldin, P. J., Kaplan, S., Sherdell, L., Gotlib, I. H., & Jonides, J. (2012). Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals with depression. The Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(3), 300–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.012
Bezold, C. P., Banay, R. F., Coull, B. A., Hart, J. E., James, P., Kubzansky, L. D., Missmer, S. A., & Laden, F. (2018). The relationship between surrounding greenness in childhood and adolescence and depressive symptoms in adolescence and early adulthood. The Annals of Epidemiology, 28(4), 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2018.01.009
Birkett, C. (2020). America’s revolutionary great migration. Retrieved September 21, from https://journals.univie.ac.at/index.php/oezg/article/download/4044/3766
Blair, E. (2012). The strange story of the man behind ‘Strange Fruit’. NPR. Retrieved July 20, from https://www.npr.org/2012/09/05/158933012/the-strange-story-of-the-man-behind-strange-fruit
Blum, E. D. (2002). Power, danger, and control: Slave women’s perceptions of wilderness in the nineteenth century. Women’s Studies, 31(2), 247–265.
Borunda, A. (2020). How ‘nature deprived’ neighborhoods impact the health of people of color. National Geographic. Retrieved November 28, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/how-nature-deprived-neighborhoods-impact-health-people-of-color
Boustan, L. P. (2010). Was postwar suburbanization “White Flight”? Evidence from the black migration. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(1), 417–443.
Bratman, G. N., Anderson, C. B., Berman, M. G., Cochran, B., de Vries, S., Flanders, J., Folke, C., Frumkin, H., Gross, J. J., Hartig, T., Kahn, P. H., Jr., Kuo, M., Lawler, J. J., Levin, P. S., Lindahl, T., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Mitchell, R., Ouyang, Z., Roe, J., Scarlett, L., Smith, J. R., van den Bosch, M., Wheeler, B. W., White, M. P., Zheng, H., & Daily, G. C. (2019). Nature and mental health: An ecosystem service perspective. Science Advances, 5(7), eaax0903. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax0903
Bratman, G. N., Hamilton, J. P., & Daily, G. C. (2012). The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health. The Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1249, 118–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x
Bratman, G. N., Olvera-Alvarez, H. A., & Gross, J. J. (2021). The affective benefits of nature exposure. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 15(8).
Buxton, R. T., Pearson, A. L., Allou, C., Fristrup, K., & Wittemyer, G. (2021). A synthesis of health benefits of natural sounds and their distribution in national parks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(14).
Camp, S. M. H. (2002). ‘I Could Not Stay There’: enslaved women, truancy and the geography of everyday forms of resistance in the antebellum Plantation South. Slavery and Abolition, 23(3), 1–21.
CDC. (2021a). Demographic characteristics of people receiving COVID-19 vaccinations in the United States. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved November 28, from https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccination-demographic
CDC. (2021b). Demographic trends of COVID-19 cases and deaths in the US reported to CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved November 28, from https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#demographics
CDC. (2021c). Participate in outdoor and indoor activities. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved December 3, from https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/daily-life-coping/outdoor-activities.html
Chandra, M. V. (2011). The black/white wealth gap: The transgenerational effects of post-reconstruction sharecropping and racial systems on African Americans today. University of British Columbia. Retrieved September 12, from https://open.library.ubc.ca/soa/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0072197
Chapman, R., Foderaro, L., Hwang, L., Lee, B., Muqueeth, S., Sargent, J., & Shane, B. (2021). Parks and an equitable recovery: A Trust for Public Land special report – May 27, 2021. Trust for Public Land. Retrieved November 28, from https://www.tpl.org/parks-and-an-equitable-recovery-parkscore-report
Cirruzzo, C. (2021). Green spaces tied to smaller black-white gap in coronavirus rates. U.S. News. Retrieved November 24, from https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2021-05-04/green-spaces-tied-to-smaller-racial-gap-in-coronavirus-infections
Claborn, J. (2017). Civil Rights and the Environment in African-American Literature, 1895–1941. United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing.
Coates, T. (2014). The case for reparations. The Atlantic. Retrieved September 21, from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/
Cross, A. B. (2011). Violence and social unrest: Implications of the reconstruction amendments for African Americans in the post civil war south, 1863–1877. History at digital commons, history master’s thesis, 150. History at Digital Commons, History Master’s Thesis. Retrieved September 12, from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Violence-and-Social-Unrest%3A-Implications-of-the-for-Cross/71556930941855eda9a98a999938b0f242a16c38
Cusick, D. (2020). Past racist “Redlining” practices increased climate burden on minority neighborhoods – January 21, 2020. Scientific American. Retrieved September 29, from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/past-racist-redlining-practices-increased-climate-burden-on-minority-neighborhoods/
Davis, J. (2019). Black faces, black spaces: Rethinking African American underrepresentation in wildland spaces and outdoor recreation. Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, 2(1), 89–109.
Dee, D. L., Bensyl, D. M., Gindler, J., Truman, B. I., Allen, B. G., D’Mello, T., Perez, A., Kamimoto, L., Biggerstaff, M., Blanton, L., Fowlkes, A., Glover, M. J., Swerdlow, D. L., & Finelli, L. (2011). Racial and ethnic disparities in hospitalizations and deaths associated with 2009 pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) virus infections in the United States. The Annals of Epidemiology, 21(8), 623–630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.03.002
Dickinson, K. L., Roberts, J. D., Banacos, N., Neuberger, L., Koebele, E., Blanch-Hartigan, D., & Shanahan, E. A. (2021). Structural racism and the COVID-19 experience in the United States. Health Security, 19(S1), S14–S26. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2021.0031
Duffus, M. (1999). The Mississippi writers page: Richard Wright. University of Mississippi. Retrieved September 19, from http://mwp.olemiss.edu//dir/wright_richard/
Dunning, S. K. (2021). Black to nature: Pastoral return and African American culture. University Press of Mississippi.
Egorov, A. I., Griffin, S. M., Converse, R. R., Styles, J. N., Sams, E. A., Wilson, A., Jackson, L. E., & Wade, T. J. (2017). Vegetated land cover near residence is associated with reduced allostatic load and improved biomarkers of neuroendocrine, metabolic and immune functions. Environmental Research, 158, 508–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.07.009
EJI. (2017). Lynching in America. At: https://eji.org/wp-content/uploads/2005/11/lynching-in-america-3d-ed-110121.pdf
Ekkel, E. D., & de Vries, S. (2017). Nearby green space and human health: Evaluating accessibility metrics. Landscape and Urban Planning, 157, 214–220.
Fabien, V. (2014). African American environmental ethics: Black intellectual perspectives 1850–1965. Doctoral dissertation. ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. Retrieved September 14, from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1210&context=dissertations_2
Finney, C. (2014). Black Faces, white spaces. The University of North Carolina Press.
Frumkin, H., Bratman, G. N., Breslow, S. J., Cochran, B., Kahn, P. H., Jr., Lawler, J. J., Levin, P. S., Tandon, P. S., Varanasi, U., Wolf, K. L., & Wood, S. A. (2017). Nature contact and human health: A research agenda. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(7), 075001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1663
Gates Jr., H. L. (2013a). 100 amazing facts about the Negro – How many slaves landed in the U.S.? The African Americans – Many Rivers to Cross. Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved August 11, from https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/
Gates Jr., H. L. (2013b). How many slaves landed in the U.S.? The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross. PBS. Retrieved September 1, from https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/
Hadden, S. E. (2001). Slave patrols: Law and violence in Virginia and the Carolinas. Harvard Historical Studies. Harvard University Press.
Hartig, T., Mitchell, R., de Vries, S., & Frumkin, H. (2014). Nature and health. The Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 207–228. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182443
Hendricks, M. D., & Van Zandt, S. (2021). Unequal protection revisited: Planning for environmental justice, hazard vulnerability, and critical infrastructure in communities of color. Environmental Justice, 14(2), 87–97.
Holland, I., DeVille, N. V., Browning, M. H., Buehler, R. M., Hart, J. E., Hipp, J. A., Mitchell, R., Rakow, D. A., Schiff, J. E., & White, M. P. (2021). Measuring nature contact: A narrative review. The International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(8).
Hurston, Z. N. (1937). Their eyes were watching god. J. B. Lippincott & Co.
Ikei, H., Song, C., & Miyazaki, Y. (2016). Effects of olfactory stimulation by α-pinene on autonomic nervous activity. Journal of Wood Science, 62(6).
Ingraham, C. (2020). Pandemic underscores how public parks shape public health – July 31, 2020. Washington Post. Retrieved December 3, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/07/31/public-parks-health-coronavirus/
Jennings, V., & Bamkole, O. (2019). The relationship between social cohesion and urban green space: An avenue for health promotion. The International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(3), 452.
Jennings, V., Reid, C. E., & Fuller, C. H. (2021). Green infrastructure can limit but not solve air pollution injustice. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1–2.
Kahn, P. H. J., Weiss, T., & Harrington, K. (2018). Modeling child–nature interaction in a nature preschool: A proof of concept. Frontiers in Psychology, 9.
Kaplan, R., & Kaplan, S. (1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–182.
Kaplan, S., & Berman, M. G. (2010). Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and self-regulation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(1), 43–57.
Kellert, S. R., & Wilson, E. O. (1995). The biophilia hypothesis. Island Press.
KFF. (2021). State COVID-19 data and policy actions – November 16, 2021. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved November 28, from https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/state-covid-19-data-and-policy-actions/#raceethnicity
Kuo, M. (2015). How might contact with nature promote human health? Promising mechanisms and a possible central pathway. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(August), 1–8.
Lee, J., Park, B. J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Ohira, T., Kagawa, T., & Miyazaki, Y. (2011). Effect of forest bathing on physiological and psychological responses in young Japanese male subjects. Public Health, 125(2), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2010.09.005
Lee, L. J., & Scott, D. (2016). Bourdieu and African Americans’ park visitation: The case of Cedar Hill State Park in Texas. Leisure Sciences, 38(5), 424–440.
Lev, E., Kahn, P. H., Jr., Chen, H., & Esperum, G. Relatively wild Urban Parks can promote human resilience and flourishing: A case study of Discovery Park, Seattle, Washington. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 2, 2.
Lipsitz, G. (2011). How racism takes place. Temple University Press.
Locke, D. H., Hall, B., Grove, J. M., Pickett, S. T. A., Ogden, L. A., Aoki, C., Boone, C. G., & O’Neil-Dunne, J. P. M. (2021). Residential housing segregation and urban tree canopy in 37 US Cities. NPJ Urban Sustainability, 1(15).
McKoy, J. (2021). During COVID, park use was higher in majority-white neighborhoods. Boston University. Retrieved July 20, from https://www.bu.edu/sph/news/articles/2021/during-covid-park-use-was-higher-in-majority-white-neighborhoods/
Mears, M., Brindley, P., Maheswaran, R., & Jorgensen, A. (2019). Understanding the socioeconomic equity of publicly accessible greenspace distribution: The example of Sheffield, UK. Geoforum, 103, 126–137.
Meidenbauer, K. L., Stenfors, C. U. D., Bratman, G. N., Gross, J. J., Schertz, K. E., Choe, K. W., & Berman, M. G. (2020). The affective benefits of nature exposure: What’s nature got to do with it? The Journal of Environmental Psychology, 72, 101498. https://doi.org/10.10616/j.jenvp.2020.101498
Mitchell, W. M. (1860). The under-ground railroad from slavery to freesom. William Tweedie.
Mock, B. (2016). For African Americans, park access is about more than just proximity. Bloomberg CityLab. Retrieved September 17, from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-02/a-legacy-of-racism-in-america-s-parks
Muir, J., & Badè, W. F. (1916). A thousand-mile walk to the gulf. Houghton, Mifflin Company. http://vault.sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/writings/a_thousand_mile_walk_to_the_gulf/
Napieralski, J., Sulich, C., Taylor, A., & Draus, P. (2022). Mapping the link between outdoor water footprint and social vulnerability in Metro Phoenix, AZ (USA). Landscape and Urban Planning, 226, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104498
Nardone, A., Rudolph, K. E., Morello-Frosch, R., & Casey, J. A. (2021). Redlines and greenspace: The relationship between historical redlining and 2010 greenspace across the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives, 129(1), 17006. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP7495
Nesbitt, L., Meitner, M. J., Girling, C., Sheppard, S. R., & Lu, Y. (2019). Who has access to urban vegetation? A spatial analysis of distributional green equity in 10 US cities. Landscape and Urban Planning, 181, 51–79.
New York Times. (2020). How Decades of Racist Housing Policy Left Neighborhoods Sweltering. At: https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/08/24/climate/racism-redlining-cities-global-warming.html
NPS. (2018). Quick history of the national park service. National Park Service. Retrieved September 29, from https://www.nps.gov/articles/quick-nps-history.htm
NPS. (2020). The middle passage. National Park Service. U.S. Department of Interior. Retrieved August 11, from https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-middle-passage.htm
NRPA. (2011). Rejuvenating neighborhoods and communities through parks – A guide to success. National Recreation and Park Association. Retrieved November 24, from https://www.nrpa.org/uploadedFiles/nrpa.org/Publications_and_Research/Research/Papers/Rejuvenating-Neighborhoods-White-Paper.pdf
Park, B. J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T., Kagawa, T., & Miyazaki, Y. (2010). The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): Evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 15(1), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12199-009-0086-9
Pearce, J. R., Richardson, E. A., Mitchell, R. J., & Shortt, N. K. (2010). Environmental justice and health: The implications of the socio-spatial distribution of multiple environmental deprivation for health inequalities in the United Kingdom. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 35(4), 522–539.
PFLWN. (2017). Humboldt Parkway makes list of ‘Five places America should have saved. Partners for a Livable Western New York. Retrieved December 2, from https://livablewny.org/2017/09/18/humboldt-parkway-list-5-places-america-saved/
Quinn, S. C., Kumar, S., Freimuth, V. S., Musa, D., Casteneda-Angarita, N., & Kidwell, K. (2011). Racial disparities in exposure, susceptibility, and access to health care in the US H1N1 influenza pandemic. The American Journal of Public Health, 101(2), 285–293. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.188029
Ratcliffe, E., Gatersleben, B., & Sowden, P. T. (2013). Bird sounds and their contributions to perceived attention restoration and stress recovery. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 36, 221–228.
Reichel, P. L. (1988). Southern slave patrols as a transitional police type. American Journal of Police, 7(2), 51–77.
Rowland-Shea, J., Doshi, S., Edberg, S., & Fanger, R. (2020). The nature gap: Confronting racial and economic disparities in the destruction and protection of nature in America. Center for American Progress. Retrieved July 5, from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/reports/2020/07/21/487787/the-nature-gap/
Schell, C. J., Dyson, K., Fuentes, T. L., Des Roches, S., Harris, N. C., Miller, D. S., Woelfle-Erskine, C. A., & Lambert, M. R. (2020, Sep 18). The ecological and evolutionary consequences of systemic racism in urban environments. Science, 369(6510) https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay4497
Sheehy, K. (2020). Christian Cooper recounts incident with Amy Cooper before Central Park video – May 26, 2020. NY Post. Retrieved December 3, from https://nypost.com/2020/05/26/christian-cooper-recounts-amy-cooper-incident-before-video-footage/
SierraWild.gov. (n.d.). The Wilderness Act. Sierra Wild. Retrieved November 24, from https://www.sierrawild.gov/resources/wilderness-act/
Slater, S. J., Christiana, R. W., & Gustat, J. (2020). Recommendations for keeping parks and green space accessible for mental and physical health during COVID-19 and other pandemics. Preventing Chronic Disease, 17, E59. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd17.200204
Smith, K. K. (2005). What is Africa to me? Wilderness in black thought, 1860–1930. Environmental Ethics, 27(3), 279–297.
Smith, K. K. (2007). African American environmental thought foundations. University Press of Kansas.
Spotswood, E. N., Benjamin, M., Stoneburner, L., Wheeler, M. M., Beller, E. E., Balk, D., McPhearson, T., Kuo, M. C., & McDonald, R. I. (2021). Nature inequity and higher COVID-19 case rates in less-green neighbourhoods in the United States. Nat Sustain. Nature Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00781-9
Stewart, N. (2020). The White Dog Walker and #LivingWhileBlack in New York City – May 30, 2020. NY Times. Retrieved December 3, from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/30/nyregion/central-park-video.html
Turner, M. W. (2012). Hiding, hunting, and habitat: An environmental re-analysis of the slave narratives. Boise State University Theses and Dissertations. Retrieved September 8, from https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1304&context=td
Ulrich, R., Simons, R., Losito, B., Fiorito, E., Miles, M., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201–230.
US.Congress. (1964). Wilderness Act (16 U.S.C. 1131 (note). Retrieved November 23, from https://www.fsa.usda.gov/Assets/USDA-FSA-Public/usdafiles/Environ-Cultural/wilderness_act.pdf
Wilkerson, I. (2010). The warmth of other suns: The epic story of America’s great migration. Vintage Books.
Wilkerson, I. (2016). The Long-Lasting Legacy of the Great Migration. Smithsonian Magazine. Available at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/long-lasting-legacy-great-migration-180960118/
Woodward, C. V., & McFeely, W. S. (2002). The strange career of Jim Crow. Oxford University Press.
Young, T. (2009). “A Contradiction in Democratice Government”: W.J. Trent Jr. and the struggle to desegregate National Park campgrounds. Environmental History, 14(4), 651–682.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Roberts, J.D., Omidvar Tehrani, S., Bratman, G.N. (2023). Black Bodies and Green Spaces: Remembering the Eminence of Nature During a Pandemic. In: Andrews, D.L., Thorpe, H., Newman, J.I. (eds) Sport and Physical Culture in Global Pandemic Times . Global Culture and Sport Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14387-8_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14387-8_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-14386-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-14387-8
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)