In the previous chapter, we discussed how immigrants make sense of their career options and their professional selves (identity work) and how these processes are intertwined to shape their work integration in a new country. To make sense of their surroundings and identify opportunities, immigrants must access local interpretation schemas (Glanz et al., 2001; Nardon et al., 2015). Schemas are ‘knowledge structures that represent objects or events and provide default assumptions about their characteristics, relationships, and entailments under conditions of incomplete information’ (DiMaggio, 1997, p. 269). In other words, schemas organize categories of information and their relationship.

The need for local interpretation schemes makes QIs highly susceptible to influence by local agents in a new social environment. In this chapter, we focus on the role of interactions in supporting QIs to make sense of their employability options and, as a result, their plausible career actions. We focus on a few powerful interactions that are particularly influential because of their legitimacy or symbolic power (Hallett, 2003), namely career counselors, mentors, coaches, and professional networks.

Jessica1 is a manager in an immigrant service provider organization (SPO) in Canada. In Canada, SPOs receive government funds to deliver a wide array of settlement and integration services to immigrants, including employment services, language assessment and training, information and orientation, mentoring, and community connections (IRCC, 2021) (see more information about these organizations in Chapter 5). She explains the important role of career counselors in bridging the expectations of employers and QIs:

The most common reasons employers don’t hire newcomers are: one, is that at the interview, their interpersonal skills are not as refined as the employer would like, that’s the biggest barrier, and the second one it’s that the clients are not prepared enough for the interview, sometimes. One of the barriers I think for newcomers is that, especially for those who are highly qualified and highly trained, is that they live in their heads about their experience and how much they have done and what they have done, whereas the employer, on the other hand, is looking for the person to be able to say to the employer, ‘this is how I can work with your organization.’ For the newcomer, their understanding of how to transfer the experience to this environment is sometimes not very clear to the employer. And the employer, him or herself depending on how well they understand the people who are internationally trained, are not able to bridge the gap either. So, for that reason, a person who is competing and who has, for example, Canadian experience who can articulate the experience better is at an advantage, compared to the newcomer who is still in their head…And if service providers and people like us are not aware that someone’s breakdown in confidence can become the reason that they are not securing employment. If we don’t get that, that becomes a problem.

We see many newcomers expect the success to happen as soon as they land in Canada. Like one guy, he said to me, ‘I thought employers would be waiting for me at the airport when I came’ because he believed that he had something that everybody wanted, and then three years later, he couldn’t find a job. And part of the reason is that they don’t understand all the rules of engagement in this new society, so the job application process is different, the interview process is different, and the networking is something that [is challenging]. Whereas in their home countries, they probably had the networking as a natural part. It was organic for them. Here, you have to build the network and also understand the protocol, the processes, and the way things work within organizations. It’s very difficult for you to move from senior-level management in your home country to senior-level management here without understanding all the layers that are between them.

As Jessica highlights, the process of communication between QIs and potential employers is fraught with challenges. The communications QIs have with employment counselors, mentors, and other community members are critical to helping QIs make sense of their opportunities and translate what they have to offer to employers. Through communication, employers and immigrants co-create meaning and identify—or not—employment opportunities. Recall the case of Olga (Chapter 2), whose employer engaged in a non-standard recruitment process that allowed her to showcase her skills. The manager reciprocated by identifying a suitable position at a higher level than the original job posting. Thus, communication is a critical process in immigrant work integration. Communication is a vital mechanism for understanding QIs’ qualifications and supporting them in navigating the local labor market; this is the next topic of discussion.

4.1 Communication and Sensemaking

Sensemaking is interactional; individuals talk and draw on language resources to formulate and exchange representations of circumstances (Taylor & Van Every, 2000, cited in Weick et al., 2005). Thus, communication is the primary process through which individuals co-create meaning. Individuals simultaneously make sense of situations and engage in sensegiving efforts, influencing the meaning construction of others (Gioia & Chittipeddi, 1991). Communication is also the main tool QIs use to integrate into new professional environments. Through communication, QIs exchange ideas, learn about others, explain themselves, and find their space within the community. This communication process is inherently dynamic and generates a negotiated—and unpredictable—outcome through the interplay of individuals’ backgrounds, behaviors, and situational circumstances (Nardon, 2017; Szkudlarek et al., 2020). Sensemaking through interactions is influenced by power dynamics and contextual constraints as some individuals (career counselors, recruiters), through their sensegiving efforts, can influence QI’s sensemaking to a greater extent than others (Nardon et al., 2021). These communication episodes among QIs and influential local actors are intercultural in nature, as discussed below.

4.1.1 Intercultural Communication

The process of communication is influenced by individuals’ cultural backgrounds. A full discussion of the role of culture in communication is beyond the scope of this book (see Szkudlarek et al., 2020 for an overview of research on intercultural communication). It is important to acknowledge that culture influences what is communicated, as well as how it is communicated (see Steers et al., 2016). One way to understand the role of culture in communication is through the concept of common ground.

Common ground is a set of knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions that are mutually known (Clark, 1996). By mutually known, we mean both parties know about it and know that the other person knows it as well. In other words, we have common ground when we are both aware that we share some knowledge and information. Having common ground makes it easier to interact with others who share our context and culture, not necessarily because we agree about the opinions and assumptions shared, but because we understand what they mean and where they are coming from. For example, people from the same context and culture will understand typical career trajectories, professional role expectations, and skills likely to be needed or developed in different positions within the same occupational field. People living in the same context will know what being a store manager might entail. In other words, common ground allows people to fill the gaps left by what is unsaid (Shaules, 2015).

These roles and activities, however, vary widely across cultures and contexts, making it challenging for QIs to convey the full potential of their skills and abilities because there may not be enough common ground to understand what is being communicated. Using another example, a degree from a prestigious university, a job title, or a position at a top employer are symbols that communicate a particular social position to potential employers and, in turn, generate an expectation of knowledge and skills. When common ground is lacking, however, it may be difficult to communicate the relevance of these symbols and experiences. For example, a QI possessing a ‘first class’ degree from a top university in their home country may not easily translate as a summa cum laude degree from a Canadian institution. In productive interactions, common ground can be created through communication. Individuals share details about their experiences and assumptions and ask questions about others’ assumptions and understanding. This is a necessary but time-consuming process (Nardon, 2017).

Common ground carries information about the content of our experiences and includes information about communication protocols or the ways we communicate and expect others to communicate. Petra, an immigrant from Serbia, explained her challenge of finding appropriate ways to communicate the depth of her accomplishments:

I come from a culture where you’re supposed not to brag. You are not supposed to talk about yourself. Other people do that for you. So, I never did that in that way, and if I say I did something very well, I feel bad. Oh, you’re bragging, you’re not humble, and that just feels hard. Hey, I grew up in a war zone, and I succeeded … But just understand the effort that was required and focus that was required to succeed in an environment that was in the war, that was in economic hardship. And how to communicate to people that you are passionate about something in a way that doesn’t make them feel bad? Because you said, oh, it was war, and I had to work hard. No, I don’t want to say that.

Learning new ways of communication and developing common ground in an unfamiliar context take time. It involves more than learning a language and using the right words. We also communicate through nonverbal or visual communication (e.g., facial expressions, gestures, the use of personal space, opulent surroundings, etc.) to convey a message. These symbols may not be understood, creating challenges for newcomers to express their talent, as well as to understand the communication cues that may be sent to them by potential employers or other individuals trying to help. For this reason, QIs rely heavily on cultural brokers; these are individuals that bridge, link, or mediate between individuals and groups from different cultures (Lo, 2010). These individuals need high levels of intercultural competence, as discussed below.

4.2 Intercultural Competence

In countries that receive large numbers of immigrants, cross-cultural training is a thriving industry. There are plenty of training programs available to support newcomers to develop cultural competence, which is the ability to behave in ways considered to be appropriate to the local culture. These training programs focus on educating foreigners on local ways to increase their cultural fit, facilitate their success in job interviews, and prepare them to eventually integrate successfully and seamlessly into their new workplace. Like common ground, explained above, developing cultural competence takes time, and expecting QIs to be fully competent in the local culture before engaging in meaningful work is counter-productive and unnecessary.

To mitigate this challenge, cross-cultural training is also offered to employers to increase awareness of cultural differences and increase understanding. Such training can still fall short since culture is complex. It is impossible to prepare QIs for all possible cultural misunderstandings in their everyday work, despite the highly multicultural nature of most professional environments created by the active recruitment and retention of global talent and high levels of immigration to many receiving countries. Today’s work environment demands intercultural competence from most of us (see Nardon, 2017).

Intercultural competence is the ability to overcome the constraints imposed by our natural cultural tendencies and develop new responses (Friedman & Antal, 2005). This enables us to navigate a situation even when we lack the cultural knowledge or the ability to behave in the ways that are expected. As such, intercultural competence is the ability to behave in ways that facilitate understanding (Nardon, 2017). In a job interview scenario, cultural competence is manifested when the interviewer and candidate share competence in a common culture, and the interview process is not influenced unduly by cultural differences. Intercultural competence, on the other hand, manifests when individuals do not have common ground, or a shared cultural understanding of the process and content of the interview yet can come to an understanding through conversation. The interviewer may ask additional questions to understand the candidate’s experience, and the candidate may offer contextual information to help the interviewer appreciate the importance of the information provided. For example, Petra may need to explain how her career achievements are particularly meaningful considering the war and economic situation in Serbia when she lived and worked there. Intercultural competence also presupposes the ability to navigate different communication styles and adjust our listening and speaking methods to accommodate others. That may mean attempting to engage in more direct communication, even if that is not our preferred style, or confirming our understanding when communication from others seems unclear to us.

Overall, communication processes across cultures are more demanding as many assumptions need to be articulated and explained. Messages are often unclear or difficult to interpret, and important information can get lost easily. It may be difficult to establish rapport, find areas of common interest, and develop trust. As Jessica explained in the opening story, QIs need to explain their qualifications in ways that are understandable to potential employers. But employers also bear some responsibility for bridging the gap in recognizing talent. Individuals who work to support QIs integration play a critical role in supporting QIs to communicate their skills. Therefore, all individuals involved in the project of immigrant work integration must develop intercultural competence to have successful working relationships with individuals of different cultural backgrounds (see Nardon, 2017 for developing intercultural competence).

4.3 Selected Powerful Interactions

Immigrants have multiple interactions that hold the potential to influence their career path in a new country. They communicate with family members, other immigrants, and individuals in the community. QIs also seek professional employment support through community organizations, participate in professional activities, pursue advice from mentors, and engage with professional coaches. They attend training programs, participate in networking events, and may strike up a conversation with a stranger in a public place. These interactions in physical and online spaces facilitate QIs seeking support for their general and work integration challenges (Gulanowski, 2018; Nardon et al., 2015).

Each of these interactions provides immigrants with information, emotional support, access to tangible resources, and ways to make sense of their new environments. However, some of these interactions might be more influential than others because they have symbolic power, which is the power to define a situation (Hallett, 2003). These individuals, based on their roles, positions, and perceived expertise, are imbued with legitimacy. As a result, immigrants attempting to understand the labor market may consider these individuals’ interpretations and viewpoints more valuable than the views of others. We discuss some of these powerful interactions below.

4.3.1 Immigrant Support Staff

Immigrant support personnel are often the first—and sometimes the only—source of employment support immigrants have in a new country. The nature and type of support may vary widely. While some immigrant support staff are trained career counselors, others are not but would still be positioned to provide career-related support. These individuals support immigrants in their career development in the new country. Career development is ‘a lifelong process of blending and managing paid and unpaid activities: learning (education), work (employment, entrepreneurship), volunteerism and leisure time’ (Shaffer & Wiens, 2020, p. 7). It is also highly influenced by one’s cultural background. What is considered part of one’s career and what is not can vary widely and hold different cultural significance.

For instance, in some cultures, volunteerism is considered a professional activity, while in others, it is seen as a form of community engagement separate from professional pursuits. A small number of studies, mostly in social work and sociology, investigate the nature and role of immigrant volunteerism in work integration (George & Chaze, 2009; Handy & Greenspan, 2009; Lee & Pritzker, 2013). These scholars examine the development of different types of networks through volunteerism—in particular ‘bonding,’ or tight, in-group relationships, vs. ‘bridging,’ i.e., loose relations to an extensive network outside one’s group—and their role in employment outcomes (Couton & Gaudet, 2008; Perez et al., 2010; Sundeen et al., 2007; Witmer Sinha et al., 2011). The key finding of these studies is that individual differences such as legal/migratory status, gender, class, ethnicity/race, and age, among others, influence the nature and quantity of migrants’ volunteer work and thus its outcomes and benefits.

In our own research on the role of immigrant support staff in integration (Nardon et al., 2021), we found that they engaged in sensegiving practices to help immigrants calibrate their expectations and form realistic career goals. These sensegiving practices emphasized gaining labor market experience from entry-level jobs (including volunteer opportunities), keeping immigrants motivated by fostering hope for the future, and promoting a long-term vision of workforce integration. Even though they recognized that available jobs might not be ideal, they suggested that they would help individuals gain local work experience and build networks that will ultimately benefit their career development. For instance, Jacob, a worker at SPO, shared the story of an immigrant psychiatrist from Pakistan who was able to succeed despite humble beginnings:

He worked at the hospital as a cleaner, but he always connected with people in the psychiatry department, understood what they needed. Then he was able to take courses at night and … to actually pass the exams … to go to school, to university, and then he graduated with his degree … through connections that he developed while he was cleaning at the hospital, he was able to get somebody to recommend him to do his residency … and now he’s a psychiatrist… (Jacob, manager) (quoted in Nardon et al., 2021, p. 14)

4.3.2 Mentors

Mentoring is a critical tool to support the adjustment and career development of international talent and has been used widely to assist traditional expatriates (organizational assignees) and immigrants (Månsson & Delander, 2017; Mezias & Scandura, 2005; Rajendran et al., 2017). Mentoring involves a relationship whereby an experienced mentor is paired with a less experienced protégé to support them in their career advancement, as well as psychosocial development (Kram, 1985). Increasingly, employment support programs include mentoring as a tool to facilitate immigrants’ work integration. Mentorship programs designed for newcomers match locally based experienced mentors with immigrant protégés of similar professional backgrounds. Mentors provide QIs with personal and professional support and help them navigate the local labor market. Forms of support include educating them about workplace cultures and job search strategies, connecting them with potential employment opportunities, and developing social networks (Lai et al., 2017).

Current understandings of mentoring suggest that individuals need multiple mentors throughout their careers (Higgins & Kram, 2001), and these relationships may take various forms, including peer-mentoring and informal mentoring relationships. At first, mentoring is needed to support learning about the labor market and preparing for job interviews. At later stages, mentorship can ease adjustment into a new workplace and help with advancing professionally.

Our ongoing research on pre-employment immigrant mentorship suggests that establishing deep relationships of trust outside of a work environment is challenging. Protégés are under immense pressure to find employment, and mentors are not always able to support them in building the social and cultural capital required to succeed. Furthermore, matching mentors and mentees is challenging as many QIs may not yet have a clear idea of which career path(s) will work for them. Often, the relationship becomes transactional and focused on the immediate tasks of preparing resumes and job interviews rather than career development. This is unfortunate as it deprives QIs of the opportunity to learn about the local culture and develop a long-term career path. Nonetheless, mentorship is necessary to support QIs in all aspects of integration. It requires a long-term perspective and the sustained and substantive engagement of multiple individuals who hold strategic positions throughout the process of work integration.

4.3.3 Coaches

Coaching is a popular method to support individuals to advance professionally. It assists individuals in developing skills such as leadership, increasing performance, engaging in a career change, adjusting to cross-cultural situations, and achieving personal goals. Bachkirova et al. (2018, p. xxix) define coaching as ‘a human development process that involves structured, focused interaction and the use of appropriate strategies, tools, and techniques to promote desirable and sustainable change for the benefit of the client and potentially other stakeholders.’

Coaching is often used in addition to training and mentoring to support individuals in identifying a path toward their desired future. Unlike mentors, coaches do not (necessarily) have the knowledge and experience the client requires, such as knowledge of a particular profession. Still, they can support the client to identify and achieve goals and complement the work of mentors. In coaching, the agenda, as well as the breadth and depth of exploration, is set by the coachee. Rather than being an expert on the professional field or topic necessarily, the coach is an expert in the process of guiding the client toward identifying and developing the skills they need to succeed in many areas of life.

Intercultural coaching aims to support clients when cultural issues are salient, as is the case for internationally mobile individuals. Abbott (2018) identifies an interesting paradox with intercultural coaching. On the one hand, he notes that individuals seeking intercultural coaching have reached a level of awareness about the intercultural nature of their challenges that renders a purely intercultural intervention unnecessary. In addition, labeling an intervention intercultural may undermine its effectiveness by detracting attention away from other factors. For instance, an individual who is unclear about their career goals and has conflicting priorities (e.g., advance professionally, spend time with family) may need to clarify their goals and priorities rather than focusing on the cultural variations in the interviewing process. On the other hand, many coaches are not equipped to incorporate intercultural dimensions in their work. Thus, QIs may find it challenging to get the support they need. In an ideal world, all coaches should be cognizant of cultural influences that shape QI’s career and social transition. A productive coaching relationship would address intercultural as well as other factors in support of immigrants’ transitions. QIs seeking coaching support need to research coaches’ credentials and qualifications to ensure they are equipped to support the challenges of international transitions.

4.3.4 Professional Networks

The importance of professional networks for integration is well established (Nannestad et al., 2008). In our own research (Nardon et al., 2019), participants reported having difficulty in developing appropriate and useful social and professional networks with locally born and/or educated individuals. While QIs may have been invited to many networking events, they felt unprepared to approach a company representative and did not know what to say about themselves or what questions to ask. In addition, immigrants found it difficult to develop rapport with Canadian-born co-workers during the initial period of employment and felt excluded from informal conversations.

QIs often explained this exclusion as being a result of a lack of understanding of some cultural references and jokes, inadequate skills or culturally specific knowledge to engage in small talk, and an inability to pick up on some of the more subtle rules of Canadian informal communication. Individuals who were able to develop professional networks in support of their work integration attributed their success to their ability to build and leverage connections with other immigrants with similar professional interests. Immigrants in the same profession were instrumental in sharing information about job opportunities, as well in facilitating the adjustment process once employed (Nardon et al., 2019). This is likely due to the common ground shared between immigrants. While they come from different countries and may not share a common culture, they share the experience of being an immigrant and understand the challenges inherent to work integration in a new environment.

4.4 Practical Insights

QIs’ interactions with a wide variety of local actors can have a significant impact on the ways they learn about the labor market, the options they believe are available to them, and the decisions they make. QIs need multiple types of support, not only from immigrant support staff or professional coaches but from professionals (including QIs) in their fields and mentors. Positive and successful QI work integration requires the engagement of professionals who need to volunteer their time to inform, connect, and mentor immigrants and assist them in identifying pathways within their field (Nardon et al., 2021).

Everyone has a role to play; not only those of us directly related to the task of supporting immigrants, such as career counselors, mentors, and coaches but many of us who interact with immigrants as members of the community. This means each one of us who interacts with immigrants as we go through our everyday lives must be cognizant of how our communications matter. Thus, intercultural competence, the ability to overcome our culturally based tendencies and assumptions, is critical for an inclusive society. Intercultural competence is something each of us needs to continue to develop.

QIs must be cognizant of how these multiple communications are impacting them and mindful of who they are imbuing with power to shape their perceptions and understandings. QIs, as sensemakers, exercise agency and can decide who to listen to and who to ignore. Hallett (2003, p. 146) argues that ‘[u]nderstanding symbolic power also empowers those who do not have power. As important as the features of the structural and negotiation contexts are, in the end, it is people who imbue negotiators with legitimacy and symbolic power, and, when facing detrimental situations, people can—and do—stop imbuing negotiators with symbolic power.’

Recall the experiences of Aldo and Ulan (Chapter 3) and how they chose to interpret the information received in the same program they attended differently, ultimately having very different career outcomes. Aldo heard many examples of underemployed QIs and accepted this as his fate. Ulan, on the other hand, ignored those same stories and focused on the words of one trainer who encouraged him to beat the odds, which he did. Despite their powerful position, individuals advising immigrants may be incorrect or incomplete in their assessments, and QIs should feel encouraged to talk to as many people as possible to find their own answers.

4.5 The Road Ahead

In this chapter, we discussed the important and powerful role of the interactions that immigrants have in their integration journey. Individuals representing support organizations and employers, as well as professionals and members of the general community, provide immigrants with information and ways of interpreting their environment. These various communications have important implications for their sensemaking processes and overall integration. Sometimes these interactions are positive and can support and empower immigrants to find solutions to their integration challenges. At other times, these interactions can be discouraging or misleading and push immigrants further away from their goals and desired career outcomes. It is important to remember that the individuals interacting with immigrants are not operating in a vacuum. Sensemaking and sensegiving interactions are embedded in and influenced by organizational structures, practices, and cultures. In the next chapter, we explore the role of organizations in shaping QIs’ work integration.

4.6 Key Points

  • QIs are susceptible to being influenced by local actors because they need local interpretation schemas.

  • Sensemaking happens in and through communication as individuals exchange representations of their abilities and circumstances through language.

  • Common ground—knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions that are mutually known—facilitates communication. Lack of common ground hinders QIs’ efforts to convey their skills and experience.

  • Individuals interacting with QIs need to develop intercultural competence, which is the ability to overcome the constraints imposed by our cultural tendencies and develop new responses.

  • Immigrant support staff engage in sensegiving practices to help immigrants calibrate their expectations and form realistic career goals.

  • Mentoring is a critical tool to support adjustment and career development. It involves matching QIs with an experienced local professional of similar professional background.

  • Coaching is a popular method to support individuals to advance professionally and a good complement to mentoring and training. Coaches support QIs by helping them identify and achieve goals and develop the skills required to integrate.

  • Professional networks are key for integration. Many immigrants find it helpful to connect with other immigrants already established in their desired professional fields in the receiving country, as they can find common ground based on their lived experiences of integration.

  • Everyone has a role to play in QIs’ work integration, and QIs can decide who to listen to and who to ignore.

Note

  1. 1.

    We spoke with Jessica as part of a study on the role of newcomer support organizations in the work integration of refugees (Nardon et al., 2021). The organization where Jessica works provides employment support to immigrants regardless of entry stream and her comments are not restricted to refugees.