Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cultural Patterns of Soil Cultivation in Europe 3: Scientific Context

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Cultural Understanding of Soils

  • 183 Accesses

Abstract

Modern soil science draws on geological-physical-chemical approaches on one side, on bio-ecological approaches on the other, and on modelling. An important precondition to develop modern European mainstream natural sciences has been to remove God, any deities or spirits from creation. In this context, nature is no longer seen as a divine creation. Instead, human rationalism, natural determinism and mechanistic models have become predominant. However, European scientific views on soil and agriculture comprise more than one paradigm and there is more than one storyline to be told. This chapter sketches some basic concepts of Western scientific thinking, describes the nutrient elements theory, discusses the humus history, explores economics and functionalism, addresses soil systems theory, and investigates agroecology and agro-technology. Minority movements of science tried to integrate ideas of living soil and its vital forces (and health), mother earth, and the circle of life and death in their theories. This chapter also includes the subcultural agricultural movements of organic farming that emerged in Europe.

All modes of managing soil, ways of exploring and of relating to it have their origins that are linked with cultural patterns – be they religious or secular ones – and are thus broadly contextualized. Even scientific patterns of soil understanding are not just “evidence-based” in a narrow or even naïve sense, but they are part of human history and were influenced by many things, including the individual lives of scientists, and unconscious factors. There were and always are alternative perspectives and interpretations of “nature.” The most influential scientific paradigm and practices developed in Europe and North America have become globally dominant, with little regard for other views and experiences. In contrast, knowledge about cultural rooting spaces and the origins of modern soil science approaches can help raise awareness of their societal and psychic context, including their ambiguous rewards and threads. This might lead to more reflection and caution in progress as well as in cultural recourse, and to more freedom in the approaches available to the nature of soils and to the culture of understanding.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Compare the quotes from the Karelian (Finnish) Kalevala myth at the beginning of Chap. 2 on European polytheism and soil.

  2. 2.

    For a sophisticated critical review of human ecology of neolithization in Northern Europe, and theories on it, see Johansson, 2003. For many case studies on the diversity of this process in Southern Europe, see Manen et al., 2014.

  3. 3.

    Plough blades of bronze and then iron were used in the Middle East some 4000, 2000 years, respectively, before these iron plough shares became common in Europe (Kaser, 2011).

  4. 4.

    See also Chap. 17 on Bernard Palissy.

  5. 5.

    “il semble conforme à la raison que la nature produise aussi ses automates” (Descartes, 1649).

  6. 6.

    See for the geology (and partly soil forming factors) debate between biblical and scientific models the works of Niklaus Steno (1638–1687), Jakob Lehmann (1719–1767), Giovanni Arduino (1714–1795), James Hutton (1726–1797), Abraham Werner (1749–1817), Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) and Charles Lyell (1809–1882), the last being a teacher of Darwin. Names and dates taken from Weissert and Stössel’s historical outline of geology (2015).

  7. 7.

    See for that Gen. 8.22, Jer. 31.35 f., Ps. 104.30–32, Ps. 145.15 f., and exemplarily Job 38.37 f. (New King James Bible): “Or who can pour out the bottles of heaven, When the dust [soil] hardens in clumps, and the clods cling together?”

  8. 8.

    Jung & Pauli (1957). Cited from Jung‘s collected works 8, § 957 f.

  9. 9.

    “Eine fruchtbare Erde ist überhaupt diejenige, welche das beschiedene, und der natur aller Pflanzen zuständige maaß und verhältniß der nährenden grundteile enthält. Eine unfruchtbare hingegen diejenige, welcher nur gar wenige, oder gar keine nährende theilchen beigemischt sind. Es kan demnach eine unfruchtbare Erde fruchtbar gemacht werden, wenn sie mit jenen theilchen vermischt wird, welche den Pflanzen nahrung geben.“

  10. 10.

    In translation from Shaw & Johnson (1858) it reads in context (p. 167): “Humus is the product of living matter, and the source of it. It affords food to organization; without it nothing material could have life, at least the most perfect animals and plants could not exist; and, therefore, death and destruction are necessary and accessory to the reproduction of animal and vegetable life.”

  11. 11.

    See also: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/forests-and-agriculture/sustainable-carbon-cycles/carbon-farming_en.

  12. 12.

    “Spüren Sie die Macht. Übernehmen Sie das Kommando.” http://www.deutz-fahr.com/landing/de-de/traktoren-7250-ttv-warrior, July 2020.

  13. 13.

    See more on the concept of “inner soil” in Chap. 22.

  14. 14.

    It is sometimes irritating to see European or North American organic practices being promoted or even imposed (by labelling for export) in countries of the Global South. Some of these countries have (had) established similar or locally better practices millennia before of their development in the North.

  15. 15.

    The foundations and development of organic farming in the United States of America is not subject of this chapter. Just as a hint to its temporal localization: After having met British organic pioneer Sir Albert Howard, Robert Rodale established an experimental organic farm in 1940 in Pennsylvania, and started publishing influential books on organic farming and the journal “The Organic Farmer” with his own publishing house in 1942. Other early important US organic pioneers were Edward Faulkner, Louis Blomfield, and Barry Commoner (Vogt, 2000, p. 195 f.).

  16. 16.

    For primary sources, see in the Corpus aristotelicum, Aristotle: (About the soul) De anima II 1, 412a, (Metaphysics) Metaphys. VII.13, 1038b 1–6, IX.8, 1050a 9–16, (Physics) Phys. Ill, 1.

  17. 17.

    In philosophy, the concept of Entelechy was explicitly used for example by Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) to describe the finality of life.

  18. 18.

    For this history of ideas see as important examples the works of Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577–1644), Georg Ernst Stahl (1660–1734), Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), Paul-Joseph Barthez (1734–1806) and Marie Francois Xavier Bichat (1771–1801). For the until present last phase of vitalism discussed in more or less mainstream science, see Bütschli (1901), Wolff (1905), Braeuning (1907), and, at this time quite influential, the bio-philosophical vitalism of Driesch (1922).

  19. 19.

    In the 1858 translation of Shaw and Johnson it reads (p. 167): Humus “is the produce of organic power — a compound of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, such as cannot be chemically composed.”

  20. 20.

    Examples from the literature: Batjes (2018), Blanco-Canqui & Lal (2008): Chang et al. (2015), De Stefano & Jacobson (2017), Don et al. (2011), García-Palacios et al. (2017), Gattinger et al. (2012), Houghton (2002), Krauss et al. (2017), Lal (2013), Lorenz et al. (2019), Minasny et al. (2017), Piikki et al. (2019), Sanderman et al. (2017), Spawn et al. (2019).

  21. 21.

    Meme means a content of consciousness (thought, belief, etc.) passed on through communication and internalized through the process of imitation, thus multiplying and being perpetuated socio-culturally in a comparable way as genes are inherited biologically. The word comes from the Greek μίμημα = mīmēma = imitated things, to ancient Greek μιμεῖσθαι = mimeisthai = to imitate.

  22. 22.

    See for example Courtoy (1992), Marsh & McMahon (1999), Leborgne-Castel et al. 2010, Goode et al. (2015).

  23. 23.

    Franz Sekera organized for the National Socialist Party the alignment of the Soil University (BOKU) of Vienna, after having been imposed as their president (Inhetveen et al. 2021, p. 311 f.).

  24. 24.

    Most relevant references are from Raoul Francé, 1913 and 1922, from Annie Francé-Harrar, 1957 and 1959.

  25. 25.

    For a global overview see Frazer, 1951, p. 171–199; for source material with European cases see Patzel, 2015, p. 95, 180–183, 193 f., 250–254. Compare also Chap. 2.

  26. 26.

    A bit less successful were Montgomery’s books with the tiles (with A. Biklé) The Hidden Half of Nature: The Microbial Roots of Life and Health (2016) and Growing A Revolution: Bringing Our Soil Back to Life (2017), with different co-authors.

  27. 27.

    Geisen et al., 2018, Banerjee et al., 2019, Zumsteg et al., 2012.

  28. 28.

    “Rien n’est la proie de la mort, tout est la proie de la vie.” Quoted following Nonclerq, 1977, p. 160.

  29. 29.

    Braungart & McDonough (2009), Lovins et al. (2014).

  30. 30.

    Quote from the founding letter of Roland Chevriot from 1972: “The food quality and ecology crisis is no longer a national problem, but an actual international concern (…) all the scientifical and experimental data we have hardly can cross the borders. Wouldn’t it be possible to try to share them? I think that the creation of an international federation of organic farming movements would be of much interest for all of us and for humanity.”

References

  • Abt, Th. (2014). (Göbekli Tepe. Cultural memory and the knowledge of nature.) Göbekli Tepe. Kulturelles Gedächtnis und das Wissen der Natur. Zeitschrift für orientalische Archäologie, 7, pp 90–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abt, Th. (2023). Göbekli Tepe. Cultural memory and the knowledge of nature. Zurich: Living Human Heritage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aristotle (4th century BCE). Corpus aristotelicum: (About the soul) De anima II 1, 412a, (Metaphysics) Metaphys. VII.13, 1038b 1-6, IX.8, 1050a 9–16, (Physics) Phys. Ill, 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnalds, Ó., & Aradóttir, Á. (2015). (To read and heal the land.) Að lesa og lækna landið. Landvernd (Iceland).

    Google Scholar 

  • Augustine of Hippo (around 400 CE). (Exposition of the Psalms.) Expositio Psalmorum, p. 565 in the edition printed in Basel in the year 1497 by Johann Amerbach.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacon, F. (1623). (On dignity and increase of science, vol. 3.) De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientarum, caput III. London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balfour, Lady E. (1944). The living soil. Evidence of the importance of human health of soil vitality, with special reference to post-war planning. London: Faber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banerjee, S., Walder, F., Büchi, L., Meyer, M., Held, A., Gattinger, A., Keller, T., Charles, R., & van der Heijden, M. (2019). Agricultural intensification reduces microbial network complexity and the abundance of keystone taxa in roots. The ISME Journal. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-019-0383-2

  • Batjes, N. (2018). Technologically achievable soil organic carbon sequestration in world croplands and grasslands. Land Degradation and Development, 2018, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baveye, P., & Wander, M. (2019). The (bio)chemistry of soil humus and humic substances: Why is the “new view” still considered novel after more than 80 years? Frontiers in Environmental Science. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00027

  • Blanco-Canqui, H., & Lal, R. (2008). No-tillage and soil-profile carbon sequestration: An on-farm assessment. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72(3 May-June), p. 693–701.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Béchamp, A. (1883). (Microzyma theory.) Les microzymas dans leurs rapports avec l'hétérogénie, l'histogénie, la physiologie et la pathologie. Paris: Baillière.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berzelius, J. (1827). (Textbook on chemistry.) Lehrbuch der Chemie (transl. from Swedish by F. Wöhler). Vol. 3, part 1. Dresden: Arnold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosch, C. (1991). (Soil fertility and soil protection in the concept of organic farming.) Bodenfruchtbarkeit und Bodenschutz im Konzept der ökologischen Landwirtschaft. Berichte über Landwirtschaft, Neue Folge, 203. Sonderheft, pp. 59–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braeuning, K. (1907). (Mechanism and vitalism in 19th century biology. A historical draft.) Mechanismus und Vitalismus in der Biologie des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts. Ein geschichtlicher Versuch. Leipzig: Engelmann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braungart, M., & McDonough, W. (2009). Cradle to cradle: Remaking the way we make things. London: Vintage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brevik, E., & Hartemink, A. (2010). Early soil knowledge and the birth and development of soil science. Catena, 83(2010), p. 23–33.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brevik, E., & Burgess, L. (2016 [1st ed. 2013], eds.). Soils and human health. CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brevik, E., Homburg, J., & Sandor J. (2018). Soils, climate, and ancient civilizations. In W. Horwath, & Y. Kuzyakov (Eds.), Changing soil processes and ecosystem properties in the Anthropocene (Developments in soil science series, pp. 1–28). Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brevik, E., Steffan, J., Rodrigo-Comino, J., Neubert, D., Burgess, L., & Cerdà, A. (2018). Connecting the public with soil to improve human health. European Journal of Soil Sciences, 2019(70), p. 898–910.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bütschli, O. (1901). (Mechanism and vitalism.) Mechanismus und Vitalismus. Leipzig: Engelmann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, R. (1962). Silent Sping. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, J., Ciais, P., Viovy, N., Vuichard, N., Sultan, B., & Soussana, J.-F. (2015). The greenhouse gas balance of European grasslands. Global Change Biology, 21(10). https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12998

  • Chevriot, R. (1972). Letter to Lady Eve Balfour and other organic farming pioneers in Europe and the USA. www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/2020-05/founding_letter.pdf

  • Coulton, J. (1974, November). Lifting in early Greek Architecture. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 94, p. 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, C. (1995). Soil quality: Goals for national policy. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 50(3), p. 223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, T. (1966). The structuring of atmospheric pollution control systems. In Harold Wolozin: The economics of air pollution (pp. 61–86).

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtoy, P. (1992). Endocytosis. From cell biology to health, disease and therapy. Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Saussure, N. T (1804). Recherches chimiques sur la végétation. Paris: Nyon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dales, J. (1968a). Land, water, and ownership. Canadian Journal of Economics, 1, p. 791–804.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dales, J. (1968b). Pollution, property and prices. University of Toronto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, Ch. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, Ch. (1838). On the formation of mould. Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2, p. 274–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derbruck, J. (1981). (The influence of crop rotation on soil fertility.) Der Einfluß der Fruchtfolge auf die Bodenfruchtbarkeit. Die Bodenkultur, 32, p. 215–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Descartes, R. (1637). (Discourse on the method of rightly conducting one's reason and of seeking truth in the sciences.) Discours de la méthode pour bien conduire sa raison, & chercher la vérité dans les sciences. Leyde.

    Google Scholar 

  • Descartes, R., Lettre à Morus, 5 février 1649 (Letter to Morus), Feb. 5th, 1649. Published on http://www.caute.lautre.net/article.php3?id_article=1431, 12th Sept 2005. Cited July 2022.

  • De Saussure, N. Th. (1804). Recherches chimiques sur la végétation. Paris: Nyon.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Stefano, A., & Jacobson, M. G. (2017). Soil carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems: A meta-analysis. Agroforestry Systems. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-017-0147-9

  • Diderot, D., & Le Rond d’Alembert, J. (1765 [first vol. 1751]). (Encyclopedia, or reasoned dictionary of Science, Arts and Crafts.) Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers: vol. 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobrovolskii, G. (1996). Dokuchaev and present-day natural science. Eurasian Soil Science, 29(2), 105–110. Translation from Pochvovedenie 1996(2), p. 117–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dokuchaev, V. (1883). Russkii chernozem. In Sochineniya (collected works), Moscow 1949. Quoted from Dobrovolskii 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Don, A., Schumacher, J., & Freibauer, A. (2011). Impact of tropical land use change on soil organic carbon stocks – A meta-analysis. Global Change Biology, 17(4), p. 1658–1670. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02336.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doran, J. W., Coleman, D. C., Bedzidek, D. F., & Stewart, B. A. (Eds.). (1994). Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment (SSSA special publication 35). Soil Science Society of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driesch, H. (1922). (History of vitalism.) Geschichte des Vitalismus. 2. verb. u. erw. Aufl. [2nd revised and enlarged ed.] (1. ed. 1905). Leipzig: Barth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duchesneau, F. (1997). (Domains and frontiers of vitalism) Territoires et frontières du vitalisme (1750−1850). In: G. Cimino and F. Duchesneau: Vitalisms from Haller to the cell theory. Proceedings of the Zaragoza Symposium, XIXth Int. Congr. of Hist. of Sc., 22–29 Aug. 1993. Firenze: Olschki, p. 297-357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enderlein, G. (1925). („Cyclogenics“ of bacteria.) Bakterien-Cyclogenie. Berlin: De Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fallou, F. A. (1862). (Pedology, or general and applied soil science.) Pedologie oder allgemeine und besondere Bodenkunde. Dresden: Schönfeld.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feller, C., Raphaël, M., Swift, M. J., & Bernoux, M. (2006). Functions, services and value of soil organic matter for human societies and the environment: A historical perspective. In E. Frossard, W. E. H. Blum, & B. P. Warketin (Eds.), Function of Soils for Human Societies and the Environment (Special Publications) (Vol. 266, pp. 9–22). Geological Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feller, C., Brown, G., Blanchart, E., & Chernyanskii, P. D. S. (2003). Charles Darwin, earthworms and the natural sciences: various lessons from past to future. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 99(2003), p. 29–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francé, R. (1913). (The Edaphone. Studies on the ecology of soil-dwelling microorganisms.) Das Edaphon. Untersuchungen zur Oekologie der bodenbewohnenden Mikroorganismen. Stuttgart: Franckh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francé, R. (1922). (Life in the arable soil). Das Leben im Ackerboden. Stuttgart: Franckh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francé-Harrar, A. (1957). (Humus. Life and fertility of soils.) Humus – Bodenleben und Fruchtbarkeit. München: Bayrischer Landwirtschaftsverlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francé-Harrar, A. (1959). (The last chance – for a future without misery.) Die letzte Chance – für eine Zukunft ohne Not. München: Bayrischer Landwirtschaftsverlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frazer, J. (1951). The golden bough. A study in magic and religion. Third edition. Part V, Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, Vol II. New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gattinger, A., Müller, A., Haeni, M., et al. (2012). Enhanced top soil carbon stocks under organic farming. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (US), 109(44), p. 18226–18231.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • García-Palacios, P., Gattinger, A., Bracht-Jorgensen, H., et al. (2017). Crop traits drive soil carbon sequestration under organic farming. Journal of Applied Ecology, 2018, p. 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geisen, S., Mitchell, E., Adl, M. B., Dunthorn, M., Ekelund, F., Fernández, L., Jousset, A., Krashevska, V., Singer, D., Spiegel, F., Walochnik, J., & Lara, E. (2018). Soil protists: a fertile frontier in soil biology research. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 42, p. 293–323.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, E. (2010). Lady eve balfour and the British organic food and farming movement. PhD thesis Aberystwyth University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giri, B., & Varma, A. (2020). Soil health. Cham: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goode, B., Eskin, J., & Wendland, B. (2015). Actin and endocytosis in budding yeast. Genetics, 199(2), p. 315–358.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman, H., & Solomon, B. (2002). The origins and practice of emissions trading. Journal of Policy History, 14(3), p. 293–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grandeau, L. (1878). (Experimental work on the role of soil organic matter in plant nutrition.) Recherches expérimentales sur le rôle des matières organiques du sol dans la nutrition des plantes. Annales Station Agronomique de l’Est. Nancy, pp. 225–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R. F., Karlen, D. L., & Mulla, D. J. (1996). A conceptual framework for assessment and management of soil quality and health. In J. W. Doran & A. J. Jones (Eds.), Methods for assessing soil quality (SSSA special publication no 49) (pp. 61–82).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasan, H. (2006): Archimedes, the father of mathematics. New York: Rosen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellriegel, H., & Wilfahrt, H. (1888). (Studies on the nitrogen nutrition of gramines and legumes.) Untersuchungen über die Stickstoffnahrung der Gramineen und Leguminosen. – Zeitschrift des Vereins der Rübenzucker-Industrie des Deutschen Reichs, Beilageheft Berlin; Review 1889 in Naturw. Rundschau 4: p. 278–279, 290–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstetter, M. (1941). (Mother, give me bread!) Mutter, gib mir Brot! In W. Zimmermann, M. Hofstetter, G. Krebs, P. Häusle & E. Bertholet: (Mother Earth – Wake-up call and practical guide to organic farming.) Mutter Erde – Weckruf und praktische Anleitung zum biologischen Landbau. Zielbrücke-Thielle.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hortensius, D., & Welling, R. (1996). International standardization of soil quality measurements. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 27, p. 387–402.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, R. (2002). The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use 1850–1990. Tellus B, 51(2), p. 98–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, Sir A. (1943). An agricultural testament. Oxford Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, Sir A. (1947). The soil and health. A study of organic agriculture. The Devin-Adair Comp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inhetveen, H., Schmitt, M., & Spieker, I. (2021). (Women pioneers of organic farming.) Passion und Profession. Pionierinnen des ökologischen Landbaus. Munich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenny, H. (1941). Factors of soil formation: A system of quantitative pedology. New edition 1994, Dover Publications, Mineola.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenny, H. (1961). Derivation of state factor equations of soils and ecosystems. Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) Proceedings, 25(5), 385–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenny, H. (1984). My friend, the soil. (Interview by Hans Kevin Stuart.) Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 1984 (May–June), p. 158–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, P. (2003). The lure of origins. An inquiry into human-environmental relations, focused on the “Neolithization” of Sweden. University of Lund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jung, C. G., & Pauli, W. (1957, first ed. 1952): (Nature interpretation and the psyche.) Naturerklärung und Psyche. Zurich: Rascher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jung, C. G. (1995). Collected works 8, there: Synchronicity: An acausal connecting principle. Zurich: Walter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlen, D. L., & Rice, C. W. (2017). Enhancing soil health to mitigate soil degradation. MDPI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaser, K. (2011). (The Balkans and the Middle East. Introduction to a common history.) Balkan und Naher Osten. Einführung in eine gemeinsame Geschichte. Wien: Böhlau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kette, W. (1862): (The fermentation theory versus the humus, mineral and nitrogen theory.) Die Fermentationstheorie gegenüber der Humus-, Mineral- und Stickstofftheorie. Berlin: Wiegandt.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, F. H. (1911). Farmers of Forty centuries, or permanent agriculture in China, Korea and Japan. Madison.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch, A., McBratney, A., Adams, M., Field, D., Hill, R., Crawford, J., Minasny, B., Lal, R., Abbott, L., O'Donnell, A., Angers, D., Baldock, J., Barbier, E., Binkley, D., Parton, W., Wall, D., Bird, M., Bouma, J., Chenu, C., Flora, C. B., Goulding, K., Grunwald, S., Hempel, J., Jastrow, J., Lehmann, J., Lorenz, K., Rice, C. M. C., Whitehead, D., Young, I., & Zimmermann, M. (2013). Soil security: Solving the global soil crisis. Global Policy, 4, p. 434–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Könemann, E. (1925). (Livestock-less farming – natural soil cultivation) Fiehloser Ackerbau – natürliche Bodenbearbeitung. TAO Monatsblatt für Verinnerlichung und Selbstgestaltung, 11, p. 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Könemann, E. (1939 2nd ed. [1st editions 1931, 1932, 1937]). (Organic soil culture and fertiliser use) Biologische Bodenkultur und Düngerwirtschaft (three volumes in one). Tutzing: Siebeneicher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krauss, M., Ruser, R., Müller, T., Hansen, S., Mäder, P., & Gattinger, A. (2017). Impact of reduced tillage on greenhouse gas emissions and soil carbon stocks in an organic grass-clover ley – Winter wheat cropping sequence. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 239(2017), p. 324–333.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krupenikov, I. (1993). History of soil science. From its inception to the present (Russian translations series no. 98).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal, R. (2013). Soil carbon management and climate change. Carbon Management, 4(4), p. 439–462. https://doi.org/10.4155/cmt.13.31

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leborgne-Castel, N., Adam, T., & Bouhidel, K. (2010). Endocytosis in plant–microbe interactions. Protoplasma (Springer). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00709-010-0195-8

  • Lehmann, J., Bossio, D., Kögel-Knabner, I., & Rillig, M. (2020). The concept and future prospects of soil health. Nature reviews Earth & Environment, 25 Aug 2020, 1(10), p. 544–553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann, J., & Kleber, M. (2015). The contentious nature of soil organic matter. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16069

  • Lewicki, W. (1982, ed.). (Letters between Berzelius and Liebig.) Berzelius und Liebig. Ihre Briefe 1831–1845 mit gleichzeitigen Briefen von Liebig und Wöhler. Göttingen: Cromm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebig, J. von (1840a). (Organic chemistry in its application to agriculture and physiology.) Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. Braunschweig: Vieweg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebig, J. von (Letter of Liebig to Berzelius) Brief an Berzelius vom 3. September 1840b. In Lewicki (1982), p. 215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebig, J. von (Letter of Liebig to Vieweg) Brief von Liebig an Vieweg vom 17. März 1840. In Liebig 1986a, p. 92 f.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebig, J. von (1845, and 6th edition 1878). (Letters on chemistry.) Chemische Briefe. Leipzig: Winter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebig, J. von (1986b). (Letters between Vieweg and Liebig.) Briefe an Vieweg. Herausgegeben und bearbeitet von Margarete und Wolfgang Schneider. Braunschweig: Vieweg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebig, J. von (1851). Letter to Stöckhardt quoted from Schling-Brodersen 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linser, H. (1965). (Definition and meaning of the term "soil fertility".) Fassung und Bedeutung des Begriffes “Bodenfruchtbarkeit”. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung, Düngung und Bodenkunde 108/2 p. 115-122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz, K., Lal, R., & Ehlers, K. (2019). Soil organic carbon stock as an indicator for monitoring land and soil degradation in relation to United Nations‘ Sustainable Development Goals. Land Degradation and Development, 2019(30), p. 824–838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovins, A., Braungart, M., & Stahel, W. (2014). A new dynamic: Effective business in a circular economy. MacArthur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manen, C., Perrin, T., & Guilaine, J. (2014). (The Neolithic transition in the Mediterranean.) La transition néolithique en Méditerranée. Arles: Editions errance, archives d’écologie préhistorique.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manlay, R., Christian, F., & Swift, M. J. (2007). Historical evolution of soil organic matter concepts and their relationships with the fertility and sustainability of cropping systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 119(2007), p. 217–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, M., & McMahon, H. T. (1999). The structural era of endocytosis. Science, 285(5425), 215–220.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLean Bennett, J., McBratney, A., Field, D., Kidd, D., Stockmann, U., Liddicoat, C., & Grover, S. (2019). Soil security for Australia. Sustainability, 2019(11), p. 3416. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11123416

  • McBratney, A., Field, D., & Koch, A. (2014). The dimensions of soil security. Geoderma, 213, p. 203–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meena, R. S. (2020). Soil health restoration and management. Singapore: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minasny, B., Malone, B., McBratney, A., et al. (2017). Soil carbon 4 per mille. Geoderma, 292(2017), p. 59–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mizuta, K., Grunwald, S., & Phillips, M. A. (2018). New soil index development and integration with econometric theory. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 82, p. 1017–1032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montanarella, L., & Panagos, P. (2021). Soil Security for the European Union. Soil Security, 4(2021), 100009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, D. (2007). Dirt: The erosion of civilizations. University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, D., Biklé, A. (2016). The hidden half of nature: The microbial roots of life and health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, D. (2017). Growing a revolution: Bringing our soil back to life.

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller, G., et al. (1980). (Plant production. Soil science.) Pflanzenproduktion. Bodenkunde. Berlin (East).

    Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council (U.S.), Board on Agriculture (1997). Precision agriculture in the 21st century. Geospatial and Information Technologies in Crop Management.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nonclerq, M. (1977). (An injustice in the history of science. The case of Antoine Béchamp, the scientist from Lorraine.) Une injustice dans l’histoire des sciences. Le cas du savant lorrain, Antoine Béchamp. Bulletin Académie et Societé Lorraines des Sciences, 16(4), 137–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oldfield, Jonathan; Denis Shaw (2016): The development of russian environmental thought. Scientific and geographical perspectives on the natural environment. London/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parr, J. F., Papendick, R. I., Hornick, S. B., & Meyer, R. E. (1992). Soil quality: Attributes and relationship to alternative and sustainable agriculture. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 7, p. 5–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pastan, I., Willingham, M. (1985): Endocytosis. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patzel, N., Sticher, H., & Karlen, D. (2000). Soil fertility—Phenomenon and concept. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 163, p. 129–142.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patzel, N. (2010). The soils scientist’s hidden beloved: Archetypal images and emotions in the scientist’s relationship with soil, chap. 13. In E. R. Landa & Ch. Feller (Eds.), Soil and culture (pp. 261–276). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patzel, N. (2015). (Symbols in agriculture. On the spiritual side of nature relation in Swiss agrarian culture.) Symbole im Landbau. Zur spirituellen Naturbeziehung in der Schweizer Agrarkultur. Munich: Oekom.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patzel, N., Zellfelder, J., & Griese, S. (2021). (Soil formation [education]. New alliances for climate and soil protection.) Boden-Bildung. Neue Allianzen für den Klima- und Bodenschutz. Der kritische Agrarbericht, 2021, p. 16–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pigou, A. (1920). The economics of welfare. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piikki, K., Söderström, M., Sommer, R., et al. (2019). A boundary plane approach to map hotspots for achievable soil carbon sequestration and soil fertility improvement. Sustainability, 11, 4038. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154038

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plinius, Gaius Secundus Maior [Pliny the Elder] (1995 / 1st cent CE): (Natural history, vol. 18 on agriculture.) Naturkunde: lateinisch-deutsch. Buch XVIII Botanik: Ackerbau. Transl. by Roderich König. Munich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quesnay F. (1758). (Economic table, and general maxims of economic governance.) Tableau économique, et maximes générales du gouvernement économiques. Versailles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regenbogen, A., Meyer, U. (2005). (Dictionary of philosophical terms.) Wörterbuch der philosophischen Begriffe: creatio continua.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinsch, H. (1852). (About the effects of fertilizer, especially of humus.) Über die Wirkungen des Düngers insbesondere des Humus. Erlangen: Deichert.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenkranz, O. (1963). (On the economy of soil fertility.) Zur Ökonomik der Bodenfruchtbarkeit. Zeitschrift für Agrarökonomik, 6, p. 195–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rusch, H. P. (1953). (The method of biological soil investigation.) Das Verfahren der biologischen Boden-Untersuchung. Kultur und Politik 8/1, pp. 13–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rusch, H. P. (1955). (Natural science of tomorrow. Lectures on the preservation and cycle of living matter.) Naturwissenschaft von morgen. Vorlesungen über Erhaltung und Kreislauf lebendiger Substanz. Küsnacht: Hartmann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rusch, H. P. (1960). (On the preservation and circle of living matter.) Über Erhaltung und Kreislauf lebendiger Substanz. Zeitschrift für Ganzheitsforschung, 4, p. 50–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rusch, H. P. (1968). (Soil fertility. A study of biological thinking.) Bodenfruchtbarkeit. Eine Studie biologischen Denkens. Heidelberg: Haug.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanderman, J., Hengl, T., & Fiske, G. (2017). Soil carbon debt of 12,000 years of human land use. PNAS, 114(36), p. 9575–9580. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1706103114

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sauerbeck, D. (1985). (Functions, quality and resilience of the soil from an agro-chemical point of view.) Funktionen, Güte und Belastbarkeit des Bodens aus agrikulturchemischer Sicht. Materialien zur Umweltforschung. Stuttgart.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sauerlandt, W. (1929). (Studies on formation and decomposition of humus in manure and soil.) Untersuchungen über Bildung und Zersetzung von Humus im Stalldünger und im Boden. PhD th. Univ. Leipzig.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schanderl, H. (1947). (A new basis for botanical bacteriology and nitrogen balance of plants.) Botanische Bakteriologie und Stickstoffhaushalt der Pflanzen auf neuer Grundlage. Stuttgart.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schanderl, H. (1970). (A new perspective on soil bacteria.) Bodenbakterien in neuer Sicht. In: Boden und Gesundheit, Zeitschrift für angewandte Ökologie, 68(3).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schling-Brodersen, U. (1989). (Development and institutionalisation of agricultural chemistry in the 19th century: Liebig and the agricultural experimental stations.) Entwicklung und Institutionalisierung der Agrikulturchemie im 19. Jahrhundert: Liebig und die landwirtschaftlichen Versuchsstationen. Serie Braunschweiger Veröffentlichungen zur Geschichte der Pharmazie und der Naturwissenschaften, vol. 31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, K. (2012). Göbekli Tepe. A Stone Age Sanctuary in South-Eastern Anatolia. Berlin: Ex Oriente.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, M. (2006). Fertile minds and friendly pens: Early women pioneers. In G. Holt & M. Reed (Eds.), Sociological perspectives on organic agriculture. From pioneer to policy (pp. 56–69). Wallingford: CABI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneidewind, W. (1915). (The nutrition of agricultural crops. Textbook based on scientific research and practical experience.) Die Ernährung der landwirtschaftl. Kulturpflanzen. Lehrbuch auf der Grundlage wissenschaftlicher Forschung und praktischer Erfahrung. Berlin: Parey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schönberger, H., & Wiese, J. (1991). (Need for research in connection with the objectives, measurability and predictability of elements and processes of soil fertility.) Forschungsbedarf im Zusammenhang mit den Zielvorstellungen, der Meß- und Voraussagbarkeit von Elementen und Prozessen der Bodenfruchtbarkeit. Berichte über Landwirtschaft, Neue Folge, 203. Sonderheft, pp. 144–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, D. (1969 until 1992). (Soil science in brief.) Bodenkunde in Stichworten. Berlin: Hirt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sekera, F. (1943; 5th revised ed. by M. Sekera 1984). (Healthy and sick soil. A practical guide to keeping the field healthy.) Gesunder und kranker Boden. Ein praktischer Wegweiser zur Gesunderhaltung des Ackers. Wien: Stocker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seidel, U. (2016). (Early farmers on best soils. Neolithic settlements away from lakes and moors.) Frühe Bauern auf besten Böden. Jungsteinzeitliche Siedlungen abseits von Seen und Mooren. In Archäologisches Landesmuseum Baden-Württemberg, Landesamt für Denkmalpflege: 4000 Jahre Pfahlbauten (pp. 52-58). Ostfildern: Thorbecke.

    Google Scholar 

  • Senft, K. (1888). (The soil according to its origin, characteristics and behaviour towards the plant world. A textbook for all friends of the plant kingdom, but especially for foresters and farmers.) Der Erdboden nach Entstehung, Eigenschaften und Verhalten zur Pflanzenwelt. Ein Lehrbuch für alle Freunde des Pflanzenreiches, namentlich aber für Forst- und Landwirthe. Hannover.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, B. R., McLauglin, M., & Brevik, E. (2017). The nexus of soils, plants, animals and human health. Stuttgart: Catena.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spawn, S., Lark, T., & Gibbs, H. (2019). Carbon emissions from cropland expansion in the United States. Environ. Res. Lett. 14045009 https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab0399

  • Sprengel, C. (1828). (Of the substances of the topsoil and subsoil, especially how such can be detected and separated from each other by chemical analysis; in what cases they are beneficial or detrimental to plant growth, and what decompositions they undergo in the soil.) Von den Substanzen der Ackerkrume und des Untergrundes, insbesondere, wie solche durch die chemische Analyse entdeckt und von einander geschieden werden können; in welchen Fällen sie dem Pflanzenwachsthume förderlich oder hinderlich sind und welche Zersetzungen sie im Boden erleiden. – In: Erdmann O. L. (Ed.): J. Technische & Oeconom. Chemie 2: pages 423–472; 3: 42–99, 313–351, 397–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sprengel, C. (1830). XIII. (On cattle urine.) Ueber Rindviehharn. Schluss einer mehrteiligen Abhandlung. In: Erdmann O. L. (Ed.): J. Technische & Oeconom. Chemie, 3/7, p. 171–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, R. (1957 ff.). (Collected works in 345 volumes.) Gesamtausgabe in 345 Bänden. Dornach.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, R. (1984). (Humanistic [spiritual] basics for the prosperity of agriculture. Agricultural course. – According to transcripts of 8 lectures held around Whitsun 1924 that were not reviewed by the lecturer.) Geisteswissenschaftliche Grundlagen zum Gedeihen der Landwirtschaft. Landwirtschaftlicher Kurs. – Nach vom Vortragenden nicht durchgesehenen Nachschr. von 8 Vorträgen auf dem Gut Koberwitz bei Breslau um Pfingsten 1924. Dornach.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stöckhardt, A. (1851). (Chemical field sermons for German farmers.) Chemische Feldpredigten für deutsche Landwirthe. Leipzig: Wigand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stöckli, A. (1946). (Soil as a living space.) Der Boden als Lebensraum. Vierteljahresschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich, 91(1), p. 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thaer, A. D. (1810). (Principles of Practical Agriculture.) Grundsätze der rationellen Landwirthschaft (Vol. 2). Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thaer, A. D. (1821). (Principles of practical agriculture.) Grundsätze der rationellen Landwirthschaft (2nd ed., vol. 3). Berlin: Reimer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thaer, A. D. (1858). Principles of practical agriculture (W. Shaw & C. Johnson, Trans.). Moore publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tisdale, S., Nelson, W., & Beaton, J. (1985). Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Bertalanffy, L. (1950). An outline of general system theory. The British Journal of the Philosophy Science, 1(2), p. 134–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Engelhardt, D. (1997). Vitalism between science and philosophy in Germany around 1800. In G. Cimino & F. Duchesneau (Eds.), Vitalisms from Haller to the Cell Theory. Proceedings of the Zaragoza Symposium, XIXth Int. Congr. of Hist. of Sc., 22-29 Aug. 1993 (pp. 157–174). Firenze: Olschki.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vierzig, S. (2009). (Myths of the Stone Age. The religious world view of early humans.) Mythen der Steinzeit. Das religiöse Weltbild der frühen Menschen. University of Oldenburg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, G. (2000). (Origin and development of organic farming in German-speaking countries.) Entstehung und Entwicklung des ökologischen Landbaus im deutschsprachigen Raum. Ökologische Konzepte 99. Bad Dürkheim: Metropolis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waksman, S. (1938). Humus. Origin, chemical composition, and importance in nature (2nd ed.). London: Williams & Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallerius, J. G. (1765). (Chemical principles of arable farming.) Chymische Grundsäze des Feldbaues. First published as Wallerius (1761): Agri culturae fundamenta chemica, Uppsala.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weissert, H., & Stössel, I. (2015, 1st ed. 2009). (The ocean in the mountains. A geological time journey through Switzerland.) Der Ozean im Gebirge. Eine geologische Zeitreise durch die Schweiz. ETH Zürich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiggering, H. (2017). (Land, Landscape, Agriculture 2071. A story between dream and fallacy, which would like to be a fiction and yet is caught up with reality.) Land, Landschaft, Landwirtschaft 2071. Eine Geschichte zwischen Traum und Trugschluss, die gerne eine Fiktion wäre und doch von der Realität eingeholt wird. Series Agrarkultur im 21. Jahrhundert. Marburg: Metropolis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiggering, H., & Schallwich, D. (2019). (A war in the cornfield. Cyberwar and digitalisation – field robots and tablets, cyborgs and farmers. A narrative, fictional and realistic, today and anticipating tomorrow.) Ein Krieg im Kornfeld. Cyberkrieg und Digitalisierung – Feldroboter und Tablets, Cyborgs und Landwirte. Eine Erzählung, fiktiv und realistisch, heute und mit einem Vorgriff auf morgen. Series Agrarkultur im 21. Jahrhundert. Marburg: Metropolis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, G. (1905). (Mechanism and vitalism.) Mechanismus und Vitalismus. 2. ed. (1. ed. 1902). Leipzig: Thieme.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zumsteg, A., Luster, J., Göransson, H., Smittenberg, R., Brunner, I., Bernasconi, S., Zeyer, J., & Frey, B. (2012). Bacterial, Archaeal and Fungal Succession in the Forefield of a Receding Glacier. Microbial Ecology, 63(3), p. 552–564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Freelance Scientist, Office for Soil Communications, Überlingen, Germany

    Nikola Patzel

Authors
  1. Nikola Patzel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nikola Patzel .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Freelance Scientist Office for Soil Communications, Überlingen, Germany

    Nikola Patzel

  2. Soil, Water, and Ecosystem Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Sabine Grunwald

  3. College of Agricultural, Life, and Physical Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA

    Eric C. Brevik

  4. UMR Eco & Sols, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier, France

    Christian Feller

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Patzel, N. (2023). Cultural Patterns of Soil Cultivation in Europe 3: Scientific Context. In: Patzel, N., Grunwald, S., Brevik, E.C., Feller, C. (eds) Cultural Understanding of Soils. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13169-1_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation