Abstract
It seemed as if in the Netherlands in postwar years initiatives to construct computers were bound to be absorbed by established industry. Indeed Electrologica, the firm emerging from the mathematics research institute Mathematical Center, did find its end as Philips-Electrologica. But this was not because either Philips Industries or Electrologica would have wanted this outcome.
In fact, there was not just this one, but a plethora of initiatives to build computers. Similarly, on the market side, several industrial enterprises did purchase an automatic calculating machine. Between the two there was no easy match. Most ideas brought to the fore with sparkling enthusiasm never made it to the stage of production, not even those which had resulted in a prototype computing machine. PTT researcher Willem van der Poel’s computer design, called ZEBRA, was taken into production by Stantec in Newport (Wales) only after frustrating refusals by PTT itself, by Zuse KG in Germany and by Philips. Philips also declined to join in a venture by the Mathematical Center and NILLMIJ life insurance company to set up Electrologica.
It was not out of ignorance that Philips Industries evaded the participation in a Dutch computer industry. Both at the level of research and at the level of business policy and strategy, Philips knew what was going on. No single entity in Dutch society was better informed than the board of Philips Industries. And it acted rationally according to all this knowledge. It played on a global level and would have its agreements with partners at the same level. In this case IBM was the partner and the agreement was that IBM purchased its components from Philips in exchange for Philips’ abstinence in the market of computer manufacturing. Even after the agreement had expired Philips was hardly interested in joining in a “national” industry. If it did finally purchase the remnants of Electrologica, it did so to appropriate the expertise accumulated there.
Finally, not only a view of Philips’ own rationality in business strategies but also a view on the context of the Cold War with its characteristic relations between the hegemonic US and the European states helps to better understand the fate of Electrologica and the logic of it ending in Philips-Electrologica.
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Notes
- 1.
The present chapter is a translation appearing here for the first time in English of Alberts, G. 2019. Computerbouw in Nederland: ondernemende academici en bedachtzame industriëlen. Studium 12(1–3):48–69. It is in part based on research with Bas van Vlijmen: Alberts, Gerard, and Bas van Vlijmen. 2017. Computerpioniers: het begin van het computertijdperk in Nederland. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. It continues on earlier work with Huub de Beer: Alberts, Gerard, and Huub T. de Beer. 2008a. De AERA. Gedroomde machines en de praktijk van het rekenwerk aan het Mathematisch Centrum te Amsterdam, Studium 2, 101–127. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. The work of Huub de Beer in 2007–2008 en of Bas van Vlijmen in 2014–2017 was in part supported by the foundation PAOi, Stichting Fonds Post Academisch Onderwijs in de Informatica.
- 2.
In the postwar culture, government agencies and news agencies would prudently avoid any suggestion of free publicity and allude to Philips as “a light bulb manufacturer in the south,” “een gloeilampenfabriek in het zuiden des lands.”
- 3.
In Dutch “Technisch-Physische Dienst TH-TNO.” Cf. page 105 of Alberts, Gerard. 1998b. Optimaal regelen. In De opkomst van de informatietechnologie in Nederland, ed. E. van Oost e.a., 103–117. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
- 4.
Alberts, G. 2006. De geboorte van de Nederlandse informatica in Londen – Aad van Wijngaarden. Informatie 48(1): 46–50; Alberts, G., and P.C. Baayen. 1987a. Ingenieur van taal. Interview met A. van Wijngaarden. In Zij mogen uiteraard daarbij de zuivere wiskunde niet verwaarloozen, eds. Alberts G., F. van der Blij, and J. Nuis, 276–288. Amsterdam: CWI.
- 5.
Cf. page 247 of Wijngaarden, Adriaan van. 1949a. Algemeen overzicht moderne rekenmachines. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Natuurkunde 15:243–254; Wijngaarden, Adriaan van. 1948. Principes der Electronische Rekenmachines, Mathematisch Centrum, Rekenafdeling, CR 3, Cursus Februari 1948; Wijngaarden, Adriaan van. 1949b. Practisch rekenen. In Eerste Nederlandse Systematisch Ingerichte Encyclopaedie, Vol IV, 104–112. Amsterdam: ENSIE.
- 6.
JMC47. Jaarverslag Stichting Mathematisch Centrum [Annual Report Foundation Mathematical Center] (1947).
- 7.
Alberts and de Beer (2008a), AERA.
- 8.
Blaauw, Gerrit A. 1952. The application of selenium rectifiers as switching devices in the Mark IV calculator. Dissertation, Harvard University (Mass.).
- 9.
Gerrit Blaauw, personal communication, June 24, 2015.
- 10.
JMC52 (1952); the full text in Dutch reads: “De research over electronische rekenmachines werd onderwijl voortgezet. Met name werd aandacht besteed aan de vraag op welke wijze de onderdelen ener relaismachine met vrucht zouden kunnen worden vervangen door snellere en tevens minder kwetsbare, dus beter in bedrijf te houden, electronische onderdelen. De hierbij behaalde resultaten geven aanleiding tot de opzet van een schema ter revisie van de ARRA”.
- 11.
For more on Van der Poel, PTT, BPM/Shell, Fokker see: Alberts and Van Vlijmen (2017), Computerpioniers. This article adds the reference to Fortune and further backgrounds from the Philips and AEGON archives.
- 12.
Philips Company Archives folder 81 ‘Mechanisatie 1’.
- 13.
Letter ir. M. Lopes Cardozo to J. Tinbergen, October 14, 1954; PCA folder 81 ‘Mechanisatie 1’.
- 14.
PCA folder 81 ‘Mechanisatie 1’.
- 15.
NILLMIJ, Nederlandsch Indische Levensverzekerings en Lijfrente Maatschappij and Levensverzekeringsmaatschappij Arnhem.
- 16.
Interview Anton W. Dek, by G. Alberts and H.T. de Beer, January 8, 2008.
- 17.
Extract from a letter of J. Engelfriet to A.W. Dek, March 24, 1954, “Extract uit brief van de directie te ’s-Gravenhage (w.g. J. Engelfriet) aan Hr. Dek d.d. 24 Maart 1954,” p. 1. AEGON company archives, folder 251, X.046.1:658.564.
- 18.
Correspondence NSEM to the general manager of PTT, March 10, March 18, 1955. PTT Archives: NL-HANA, Staatsbedrijf PTT, 1955–1988, inv.nr. 4103; R.J. Ord-Smith. 1988. Memories of forty years with computers. In Vooruitgang, bit voor bit. Liber Amicorum ac Collegarum bij het afscheid van Prof.dr.ir. W.L. van der Poel 26 oktober 1988, edited Pronk, C. and W.J. Toetenel, 30–34. Delft: Delftse Universitaire Pers, in particular, pages 31–32; Udekem-Gevers, Marie d’. 2011. La machine mathématique IRSIA-FNRS (1946–1962). Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique.
- 19.
Poel, W.L. van der, H.H. Clement, and J. Rice. 1958. Patent Specification GB802,745: Improvements in or relating to Electrical Digital Computers. Submitted December 23, 1955, awarded October 8, 1958.
- 20.
Heads of agreement dated the 7th day of December 1955 between Netherlands Postal and Telecommunication Services (PTT), Standard Telephones and Cables Limited (STC) and Nederlandsche Standard Electric Maatschappij N.V. (NSEM) Relating to Computers. PTT Archives: NL-HANA, Staatsbedrijf PTT, 1955–1988, inv.nr. 4103.
- 21.
Economisch Statistische Berichten was the venue for debates among economists and policy makers. The confronting question in Dutch: De vraag kon rijzen waarom “deze onderneming, die als het ware aangewezen lijkt voor het vestigen van een computer-industrie voor administratieve en industriële doeleinden, op dit gebied tot nu toe verstek heeft laten gaan.” Reinoud, H. 1956. Over de produktie en toepassing van elektronische administratiemachines. Economisch-statistische berichten 41(2020):193–196; Reinoud, H. 1957a. De recente ontwikkeling van elektronische administratiemachines. Economisch-statistische berichten 42(2098):728–732, cf. specifically page 731; Reinoud, H. 1957b. Een Nederlandse industrie van elektronische reken- en administratiemachines? Economisch-statistische berichten 42(2103):843–845, specifically page 845; Whyte, W.H. 1956. The organisation man. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- 22.
Blanken, I.J. 2002. Een industriële wereldfederatie; Geschiedenis van Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V., Deel 5 Zaltbommel. De Europese Bibliotheek, cf. pages 155–156.
- 23.
Minutes of the 16th meeting of the Board of Trustees: ‘Notulen der 16e Curatorenvergadering van het Mathematisch Centrum op Dinsdag 7 februari 1956 in het gebouw van het M.C., 2e Boerhaavestraat 49, p. 6, Noordhollands Archief: Archief van de Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, 1946–1980, inv. nr. 4.
- 24.
A last improvement of the ARMAC, late 1958, concluded machine construction at the Computation Department. During the first two months of 1959 the Department performed all of its automated computing on the NILLMIJ copy of the X1. It combined using ARMAC and traveling to that machine in The Hague for the rest of the year. By the end of 1959 the Mathematical Center had its own X1 machine installed.
- 25.
Interview Dek (cf. note 16); N.V. Electrologica, Annual Report 1960 (’s-Gravenhage), 5. AEGON company archives: folder 165, X.003.055.5.
- 26.
Minutes of the meeting held April 16, 1959: Notulen van de vergadering gehouden op Donderdag 16 April 1959 ten kantore van de Nillmij te ’s-Gravenhage, 1. AEGON company archives: folder 171, X.008.13.053.7 G.
- 27.
Dijkstra, Edsger W. 1980. A programmer’s early memories. In A history of computing in the twentieth century, edited Metropolis, N., J. Howlett en G. Rota. New York: Academic Press.
- 28.
Interview Dek (cf. note 16); Note to the NILLMIJ board in Djakarta, 1953: Nota dd. 27 Juli 1953 aan de Directie te Djakarta, 2. AEGON company archives: folder 251, X.046.1:658.564; Dijkstra, E.W. 1959. Verslag van de voordracht door Dr. E.W. Dijkstra, gehouden op 11 december 1959. De faciliteit tot interruptie in de X1. Mededelingen van het Rekenmachinegenootschap 2(1):3–8, cf. page 6; Electrologica. 1958. Korte algemene beschrijving van de elektronische rekenmachine X1 (EL-3) [Brief description of the electronic computer X1], Technical Report EL-3. Electrologica, ’s-Gravenhage, cf. page 27; Loopstra, B.J. 1959a. Input and output in the X-1 system. In Information Processing: Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing, Unesco, Paris 15–20 June 1959, 342–344. München: Oldenbourg Verlag.
- 29.
Dijkstra, Edsger W. 1959a. Communication with an automatic computer. [PhD Thesis. October 28, 1959. Universiteit van Amsterdam]. Excelsior, Rijswijk.
- 30.
Nofre, D., M. Priestley, and G. Alberts. 2014. When technology became language: the origins of the linguistic conception of computer programming, 1950–1960. Technology and Culture 55(1):40–75.
- 31.
Alberts, G. 2014a. Algol culture and programming styles; guest editor’s introduction, algol culture and programming styles. IEEE Annals for the History of Computing 36(4):2–5, special issue; Alberts, G., and E. Daylight. 2014c. Universality versus locality: the Amsterdam style of ALGOL implementation. IEEE Annals for the History of Computing 36(4): 52–63.
- 32.
Interview Dek (cf. note 16).
- 33.
Minutes of Electrologica board meetings: Notulen E.L.-vergadering d.d. 22 december 1961, 2; … d.d. 3 april 1962, 1; … d.d. 3 mei 1962; … d.d. 19 oktober 1962; … d.d. 29 oktober 1962, 1; Enkele conclusies en overwegingen besproken door Prof. Engelfriet, Hr. Dek en Hr. Schmidt op 27 oktober 1962, AEGON company archives: folder 171, X.008.13.053.7 G.
- 34.
Minutes of Electrologica board meetings: Notulen E.L.-vergadering d.d. 26-7-1960, 2. AEGON company archives: folder 171, X.008.13.053.7 G.
- 35.
A note on the Utrecht University Computing Center: Electronisch Rekencentrum der Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht (1 november 1962), 1. AEGON company archives: folder171, X.008.13.053.7 G; Minutes of an Electrologica board meeting: Notulen EL-vergadering gehouden op donderdag 29 november 1962 ten kantore van de Nillmij te ’s-Gravenhage, 2; … d.d. 10 december 1962, 1. AEGON company archives: folder 171, X.008.13.053.7 G.
- 36.
Lugt, Ch. 1958. Toepassing van numerieke informatietechniek in industriële processen [A note on Numerical Information Technology in Industrial Processes to the Philips division Product for Industrial Applications], Notitie Philips PIT, 3 januari 1958; PCA folder 814.9 ‘Numerieke besturing’.
- 37.
Wit, D. de. 1992. Wat niet te verzekeren valt: Electrologica als casus uit de opbouw van een Nederlandse computerindustrie (1956–1967). Jaarboek voor de Geschiedenis van Bedrijf en Techniek 9:261–291, specifically pages 275–276.
- 38.
Lopes Cardozo, M. 1958. Verslag van de Quo Vadis Numerieke Informatietechniek 8/1/’58, 18 Jan. 1958. Philips Company Archives folder 814.8 Map 1; Philips Company Archives folder 81 Map 2, ‘Mechanisatie/Automatisering (Numerieke Informatietechnique) 1960–1961’.
- 39.
Krige, J. 2006. American hegemony and the postwar reconstruction of science in Europe. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press; Alberts, G. 2010 Appropriating America: Americanization in the history of European computing. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 32(2):4–7.
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Ellwood, D.W. 2018. The force of american modernity: World war II and the birth of a soft power superpower. International Journal For History, Culture And Modernity 6(11):1–17.
- 41.
Alberts, G., and P.C. Baayen. 1987b. De hoeder van de stichtingen. Interview met J.H. Bannier. In Zij mogen uiteraard daarbij de zuivere wiskunde niet verwaarloozen, eds. Alberts G., F. van der Blij, and J. Nuis, 101–114. Amsterdam: CWI.
- 42.
For the period after 1960 this policy is investigated further. Coopey, Richard, ed 2004a. Information technology policy. An international history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. In this bundle, in particular: Coopey, Richard. 2004b. Empire and technology: Information technology policy in postwar Britain and France. In Coopey (2004a), Information technology, 144–168; Ende, J. van den, N. Weinberg, and A. Meijer. 2004. The influence of Dutch and EU government policies on Philips’ information technology product strategy. In Coopey (2004a), Information technology, 187–208.
Acknowledgements
To Bas van Vlijmen, Huub de Beer and Jos Peeters I would like to express my deep gratitude for the cooperation in the research supporting the present chapter. Thanks to the foundation PAOi, Stichting Fonds Post Academisch Onderwijs in de Informatica, for subventioning parts of the research by Van Vlijmen and De Beer. I am most grateful to Marc Rensen of Philips Company Archives and Pierre Don, company archivist with AEGON, for their most forthcoming support in making the sources accessible. The collegial comments by Danny Beckers and pertinent remarks by anonymous reviewers have contributed to the quality of the text.
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Alberts, G. (2022). Philips and the Fate of Electrologica. In: Alberts, G., Groote, J.F. (eds) Tales of Electrologica . History of Computing. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13033-5_2
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