Abstract
An important question in particle physics is whether the neutrino is its own antiparticle (Majorana) or whether the neutrino and antineutrino are different particles (Dirac). This question is also important for investigating physics beyond the Standard Model, the accepted theory of particle physics. One experimental test is to search for neutrinoless double β decay. Such a decay is possible only if the neutrino is a Majopra particle. Early experiments found no evidence for such a decay, although a few members of the Heidelberg-Moscow collaboration claimed that it had, in fact, been observed. Once again, discordant results led to experimental pursuit. All subsequent experiments, excepting some further analysis by some members of the Heidelberg-Moscow collaboration, have reported no evidence for neutrinoless double β decay. This case is particularly interesting because while there is an overwhelming host of negative results, and while the Heidelberg-Moscow positive results have been subjected to considerable detailed and rather pointed criticism, the pursuit of a positive result continues for reasons that we examine in this chapter.
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Notes
- 1.
For a brief account of Dirac’s development of his theory of the electron “sea” and its connection with the discovery of the positron see Franklin and Laymon (2021, pp. 49–53).
- 2.
- 3.
In this regard this case stands in contrast to Laudan’s motivating examples (discussed in our Introduction) of the battle for acceptance between the Galilean research tradition and the cosmological tradition of Aristotle and Ptolemy, and that between Dalton’s early atomic doctrine and the much older elective affinity chemistry.
- 4.
- 5.
A geochemical experiment “is based on analyzing an ancient mineral containing a double-β isotope with the aim of extracting and counting the number of daughter atoms of the double-β transition accumulated over long geological times.” For more details see Saakyan (2013).
- 6.
For a comprehensive account of the difficult history and development of this ultimately successful experiment by one of the participants see Moe (2014).
- 7.
There are three leptons, the electron, the muon, and the tau lepton, each with its own antiparticle, and its own neutrino (antineutrino). It has been found that in all interactions so far detected lepton family number is conserved. For example, beta decay, a process in which a neutron decays into a proton, and electron, and an electron antineutrino (n → p + e + νebar). The neutron and proton have electron family number 0, whereas the electron is + 1 and the electron antineutrino is −1. Thus, electron family number is conserved. This is also true for the muon and tau families. For double beta decay (A, Z) → (A, Z + 2) + 2e− + 2νbar electron family number is conserved. For neutrinoless double beta decay (A, Z) → (A, Z + 2) + 2e− the initial state has electron family number 0, whereas the final state has electron family number 2. Thus, lepton number would not be conserved in such a decay process.
- 8.
Regarding still unanswered questions concerning neutrino masses, we note that the observed neutrinos, electron, muon, and tau are described in terms of three unknown quantities, m1, m2, and m3. “It is then common to distinguish three mass patterns: Normal hierarchy, where m1 < m2 < m3, inverted hierarchy, where m3 < m1 < m2 and the quasidegenerate spectrum, where the differences between the masses are small with respect to their absolute values (Giuliani & Poves, 2012, p. 857016-2).” If one can determine or set limits on the Majorana neutrino mass this would determine which of these options is correct.
- 9.
See Saakyan (2013, pp. 507–10) for a comprehensive explanation and analysis of the determination of the energy spectrum.
- 10.
For an extensive review of these theoretical issues see Dolinski et al. (2019, pp. 221–233).
- 11.
For a more complete account of these experiments and in particular the back and forth between Klapdor-Kleingrothaus et al. and their critics see Franklin (2018, pp. 11-4–11-35).
- 12.
For a brief review of the theoretical determination (based on experimental values) of 0νββ half-life see Dolinski et al. (2019, p. 223).
- 13.
This is not a unique occurrence. In 1995 different members of the LSND collaboration published discordant results on neutrino oscillations in adjoining papers in Physical Review Letters. For a discussion of this episode see Franklin (2001, 301–311).
- 14.
Bayesian analysis employs a statistical analogue of Bayes’ theorem whereby initially held beliefs as to probability are updated on the basis of new evidence. A crucial problem here is to determine the sensitivity of the final results with respect to such prior assignments of probability.
- 15.
The Heidelberg-Moscow 2001b paper aroused considerable interest. Klapdor-Kleingrothaus (2002) listed 28 papers on the subject.
- 16.
A more detailed account of data acquisition and analysis appeared in Klapdor-Kleingrothaus et al. (2004b).
- 17.
For a Bayesian account see Franklin and Howson (1984).
- 18.
For a review of the evolution of the 5σ standard see Franklin (2013, ix–lv).
- 19.
See Barabash (2011) for a comprehensive review of many of the early twenty-first century experiments that searched for double beta decay, both with and without neutrinos. By 2011, 10 atomic nuclei had been studied: 48Ca, 76Ge, 82Se, 96Zr, 100Mo, 116Cd, 128Te, 130Te, 136Xe, and 150Nd.
- 20.
This was an improved version of the CUORICINO experiment discussed earlier.
- 21.
A χ2 analysis yields a probability of 56 percent that the result is not a statistical fluctuation.
- 22.
Franklin’s colleague, Alysia Marino reports that only one question was raised about the Heidelberg-Moscow results. The speaker, from the GERDA collaboration, did not have a slide available to answer the question, but remarked that they had excluded it with a high degree of confidence.
- 23.
For a listing of fourteen such experiments and the associated technological advances see Dolinski et al. (2019, pp. 237–245).
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Laymon, R., Franklin, A. (2022). The Search for Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay. In: Case Studies in Experimental Physics. Synthesis Lectures on Engineering, Science, and Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12608-6_5
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